The invisible evidence: Digital forensics as key to solving crimes in the digital age.

Digital transformation rapidly changes how we live our lives in the post pandemic world. Unfortunately, digital technology is not limited to law abiding organisations and citizens. Criminal organisations and individuals are quick to identify new opportunities with new technologies, and digital transformation is dramatically changing the character of crimes, terror, and other threats. The fast emergence of new crimes is facilitated by possibilities brought by disruptive technologies such as AI, Internet of Things, drones, and cryptocurrencies that can be disastrous tools in the hands of criminals. Consequently, our society needs far better capacity to prevent and investigate criminal acts to protect organisations and citizens. This brings an urgent need to proactively reform digital forensics to significantly increase our capability to meet the strain on society brought by crimes evolving in the digital transformation era. The future of forensic science is already here, characterized by a mix of opportunities and challenges. It is essential to make it harder to effectively use digital technologies for criminal activities, while leveraging the possibilities of digital technologies by those affected, law enforcement agencies, business and organisations. As digital technologies continue to evolve, we need to stay up to date with the latest developments to effectively investigate and prosecute crimes in the digital age. There is an increased reliance on digital evidence, and the amount of heterogeneous digital evidence in criminal cases keep increasing. The forensic science techniques thus become more sophisticated and play an increasingly important role. However, the scientific area is extremely broad, and beyond the capability of most forensic science labs to keep up with the technology forefront development speed. Besides an urgent need to bring up the subject to the political arena, examples of how we can meet the challenges are discussed such as by extending our cooperation, encourage and facilitate cooperation for training and education to handle the extremely broad and rapid development, working out methods for explaining and visualising evidence for the treatment and legal values of digital evidence in prosecution, and cooperation between product developers and crime investigators for swift innovation of digital forensics tools and methodologies for quickly emerging threats. This paper will highlight specific examples where modern digital techniques are used to solve crimes in the physical world as well as crimes committed in the digital domain and discuss how "good AI" can be used to fight "evil AI" and finally touch on the sensitive balance between the increased power of the new digital forensic tools and private integrity.

Forensic stability evaluation of selected miRNA and circRNA markers in human bloodstained samples exposed to different environmental conditions.

Recently, RNA markers have been used to identify tissue origins of different kinds of body fluids. Herein, circRNA and miRNA markers were carried out to examine the presence or absence of peripheral blood (PB) in bloodstained samples exposed to different external environmental conditions, which mimicked PB samples left at the crime scenes. PB samples were placed on sterile swabs and then exposed to different high temperatures (37°C, 55°C and 95°C) and ultraviolet light irradiation for 0 d, 0.5 d, 1 d, 3 d, and 7 d, ultra-low and low temperatures (-80°C, -20°C, and 4°C) for 30 d, 180 d and 365 d and different kinds of disinfectants. Total RNA was extracted from bloodstained samples under the above different conditions, and the expressions of target RNAs (including miR16-5p, miR451a, circ0000095, and two reference genes RNU6b and 18 S rRNA) were detected by the reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) method. Results showed that these selected RNA markers could be successfully measured at all observation points with their unique degradation rates, which exhibited relative stability in degraded bloodstained samples exposed to different environmental conditions. This study provides insights into the applications of these studied miRNA and circRNA markers in forensic science.

New methods in psychological autopsy in cases of doubtful suicides.

Background: Suicide is considered a global health emergency by the WHO. In suicide, the collection of testimonial data often encounters the refusal of family members to accept the hypothesis of a self-harming event and to provide clear information on the matter. The psychological autopsy is an investigative tool historically known for collecting information on the deceased, although to date there is no standard methodological protocol for conducting interviews with family members/next of kin. Materials and Methods: We present three dubious suicide cases: fuel-related death; hanging during a party; throat cutting with multiple stab wounds. During the interview the operators avoided pressing or direct questions about the event, preferring the interview with free discussion about the deceased (stream of consciousness). Conclusion: Initially, the relatives showed an attitude of clear rejection of the suicidal hypothesis with insistent requests for clarity on what had happened. Subsequently, through the use of free-form interviews, it was still possible to intercept, in the stories, predictive signs of suicidal ideation or psychiatric comorbidities previously un-treated and probably not accepted by the relatives, especially through the description of daily acts and household habits and environmental conditions of the deceased. The cases demonstrate the importance of using standardized methods with the use of free interviews with family members in order to indirectly investigate the event.

Supermarket shopping death: the role of forensic investigations in plastic bag suffocation.

Background: Plastic bag suffocation may represent a very complex enigma for the forensic pathologist. The aim of this work is to highlight how the resolution of plastic bag suffocation cases is possible through the use of various forensic investigations, including psychological one (psychological autopsy) and toxicological examinations, in order to be able to define the manner of death. Case report: A 70-year-old man was found by his daughter lying on the bed, with his head inside a plastic bag knotted around his neck. The daughter claimed to have immediately removed the bag, but the father was already dead. An autopsy was performed. The clinical history of the victim was analysed in search of reason that could lead to suicide. The statements of the people on the death scene were examined. Results were compared with the scientific literature: a literature review was performed on the search engine Pubmed, Scopus and Google Scholar using the keywords "plastic bag suffocation" and "death". The autopsy showed no typical signs of asphyxial death. Toxicological examinations revealed benzodiazepines in the urine. Investigations revealed that the victim had been suffering from severe depression. Conclusions: The literature review confirmed that the most used wrapper is the supermarket shopping bag. We emphasize that plastic bag suffocation is a very quick event that does not leave any evident sign: this rapidity does not allow to appreciate the typical elements of asphyxiated death (petechiae, cyanosis). It seems that the fatal mechanism is a cardio-inhibitory, rather than a hypoxic process.

Rethinking scientific communication in courts: A question of credibility.

The high value placed on forensic information in the criminal justice process is demonstrated by the fallout resulting when questions are raised as to the validity of methods used, deficiencies in the understanding of the limitations of results, or uncertainties around the professional expertise or ethical practices of the provider of the information. To effectively act as the "speaker" for the scientific evidence in court, forensic science needs to have credibility. The workshop "Rethinking scientific communication in courts" held at the Australian National University College of Law in November 2023 explored the subject of science communication in the legal context through the lens of philosophy, law, forensic service provision and meta-science, demonstrating the unique challenges placed on the field of forensic science as a scientific profession confined and defined within a non-scientific system. Stemming from the discussions at the workshop, this paper examines the notion of credibility in science, how forensic science aligns with the hallmarks of a credible scientific community and the influence this has on our understandings of scientific communication in courts.

Loperamide positive deaths in Sweden 2012-2022 and Finland 2017-2022: Fatal loperamide intoxication exclusively for Sweden.

Loperamide, a potent µ-opioid receptor agonist used as an antidiarrheal drug, exhibits increased bioavailability at supratherapeutic doses, causing potential central nervous system effects. Its misuse for opioid withdrawal relief and euphoria can lead to dangerously elevated blood levels, causing severe cardiac dysrhythmias and death. This study aimed to compare loperamide positive autopsy cases in Sweden and Finland after the introduction of postmortem toxicological analysis of loperamide, focusing on loperamide's role in fatalities and identifying common characteristics among those affected. All cases with detected loperamide in femoral blood at forensic autopsies in Sweden (2012-2022) and Finland (2017-2022) were included. In Sweden, loperamide was detected in 126 individuals, and in Finland, in 111 individuals. The incidence of individuals positive for loperamide in postmortem femoral blood increased steadily over the study duration in both Sweden and Finland. Loperamide related fatalities were observed exclusively in Sweden (n=80), predominantly involving younger males with histories of substance abuse, typically classified as accidental deaths. The group of loperamide nonrelated deaths in Sweden mirrored the entirety of cases in Finland. The concentration of loperamide in postmortem femoral blood was significantly higher in cases where loperamide was considered the cause of death (median 0.140 µg/g) compared to cases where loperamide contributed (median 0.080 µg/g), as well as in deaths unrelated to loperamide in both countries (Sweden: median 0.029 µg/g; Finland: median 0.010 µg/ml). The high limit of quantification for loperamide in Sweden may underestimate therapeutic users in epidemiological assessments. This study underscores the absence of loperamide misuse in Finland and indicates a rising trend of loperamide abuse in Sweden.

Estimation of age and sex from fingernail clippings by using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy coupled with chemometric interpretation.

Fingernails can act as important forensic evidence as they can be a source of DNA that may link the victim or accused to the crime scene and may also contain traces of drugs such as cocaine and heroin, in regular users. Moreover, previous studies have shown that analyzing fingernails with various techniques can reveal important information, such as age and sex. In this work, ATR-FTIR spectroscopy with chemometric tools has been used to estimate the age and sex from fingernails by analyzing 140 fingernail samples (70 males, and 70 females) collected from volunteers aged between 10 and 70 years old. The amide bands obtained from spectra confirmed the presence of keratin proteins in the samples. PCA and PLS-R were used for the classification of samples. For sex estimation, samples were divided into four categories based on age groups, followed by the differentiation of sex in each group. Similarly, for age estimation, all samples were divided into two sets based on male and female followed by differentiation of age groups in each set. The result showed that PLS-R was able to differentiate fingernail samples based on sex in groups G1, G2, G3, and G4 with R-square values of 0.972, 0.993, 0.991, and 0.996, respectively, and based on age in females, and males with R-square values of 0.93 and 0.97, respectively. External validation and blind tests were also performed which showed results with 100% accuracy. This approach has proved to be effective for the estimation of sex and age from fingernail samples.

New developmental data for Dermestes maculatus (Coleoptera: Dermestidae) from the Yangtze River Delta region of China under different constant temperatures.

Necrophagous beetles are sometimes used to estimate the minimum postmortem interval (PMImin) in the decay and remains stages of a corpse. Among these, the Dermestidae is one of the most common groups used and therefore has important research and application value. In this study, the developmental events of Dermestes maculatus de Geer, 1774, were recorded at six constant temperatures, and isomorphen diagrams were established. The thermobiological parameters were estimated using linear and non-linear models, and morphological indicators such as larval body length were measured. The results showed that the developmental duration of the whole immature stage decreased from 66.13 ± 8.58 days at 19 °C to 21.9 ± 2.01 days at 34 °C. The survival rate of the immature stages, especially the egg stage, varies greatly with temperature, with the lowest survival observed at 34 °C and the highest at 22 °C. The lower developmental threshold, the intrinsic optimum temperature, and the upper lethal developmental threshold obtained by the curvilinear Optim SSI models were 15.28 °C, 28.36 °C, and 34.03 °C, respectively. The body length, head capsule width, and pronotum width showed obvious growth patterns with larval developmental duration, which were characterized by equations and isomegalen diagrams. This study provides important basic data for the application of D. maculatus to estimate the PMImin in forensic entomology in the Yangtze River Delta region of China.

Bloodstain classification methods: A critical review and a look to the future.

Classifying bloodstains is an essential part of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis. Various experts have developed methods. Each method considers the same basic bloodstain pattern types. These use either terminology based on the observable characteristics or the mechanistic cause of the bloodstain patterns as part of the classification process. This review paper considers ten classification methods from fourteen sources, which are used to classify bloodstain patterns. There are fundamental differences in how the patterns are classified, how differentiated the classification is, and whether the classification process uses clear, unambiguous criteria, and is susceptible to contextual bias. Experts have also reported issues with classifying bloodstains that have indistinguishable features. These differences expose key limitations with current classification methods: mechanistic terminology is too heavily relied on, and the classification process is susceptible to contextual bias. The development of an unambiguous classification method, based on directly observable characteristics within bloodstain patterns is recommended for future work.

Combining surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) and paper spray mass spectrometry (PS-MS) for illicit drug detection.

There is an ongoing effort in the US illicit drug market to make new psychoactive compounds more potent and addictive. Due to continuous chemical modifications, many fentanyl analogs are developed and mixed with more traditional illicit drugs, such as cocaine and heroin. Detecting fentanyl and fentanyl analogs in these illicit drug mixtures has become more crucial because of the increased potency and associated health risks. Most confirmatory procedures require time-consuming and expensive, highly sophisticated laboratory equipment and experimental procedures, which can delay critical information that might save a victim or find a suspect. In this study, we propose miniaturizing and accelerating this process by combining surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) analysis and paper spray mass spectrometry (PS-MS). For this aim, dual-purposed paper substrates were developed through soaking in Au/Ag nanostars suspensions. These novel, in-house prepared paper SERS substrates showed stability for up to four weeks with and without the presence of drug compounds. Fentanyl analogs with similar SERS spectra were differentiated by coupling with PS-MS. The limit of detection (LOD) for fentanyl on the paper substrates is 34 µg/mL and 0.32 µg/mL for SERS and PS-MS, respectively. Fentanyl and fentanyl analogs show selective SERS enhancement that helped to detect trace amounts of these opioids in heroin and cocaine street samples. In short, we propose the combination of SERS/PS-MS by using modified paper substrates to develop cost-effective, sensitive, rapid, portable, reliable, and reproducible methods to detect illicit drugs, especially trace amounts of fentanyl and fentanyl analogs in illicit drug mixtures. The combination of these two category A techniques allows for the identification of illicit drugs according to the SWGDRUG guidelines.

Skin locations inference and body fluid identification from skin microbial patterns for forensic applications.

Given that microbiological analysis can be an alternative method that overcomes the shortcomings of traditional forensic technology, and skin samples may be the most common source of cases, the analysis of skin microbiome was investigated in this study. High-throughput sequencing targeting the V3-V4 region of 16S rRNA gene was performed to reveal the skin microbiome of healthy individuals in Guangdong Han. The bacterial diversity of the palm, navel, groin and plantar of the same individual was analyzed. The overall classification based on 16S rRNA gene amplicons revealed that the microbial composition of skin samples from different anatomical parts was different, and the dominant bacterial genus of the navel, plantar, groin and palm skin were dominated by Cutibacterium, Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium and Staphylococcus, respectively. PCoA analysis showed that the skin at these four anatomical locations could only be grouped into three clusters. A predictive model based on random forest algorithm showed the potential to accurately distinguish these four anatomical locations, which indicated that specific bacteria with low abundance were the key taxa. In addition, the skin microbiome in this study is significantly different from the dominant microbiome in saliva and vaginal secretions identified in our previous study, and can be distinguished from these two tissue fluids. In conclusion, the present findings on the community and microbial structure details of the human skin may reveal its potential application value in assessing the location of skin samples and the type of body fluids in forensic medicine.

Are gel blasters a safe toy? A study into their kinetic energy per unit area.

Gel blasters are currently imported and marketed as children's toys in Australia. Gel blasters closely imitate the appearance of many genuine firearms of all types and are designed to propel small hydrated gel balls of approximately 7-8 mm in diameter, by means of compressed air or gas. They are considered illegal in all states of Australia except Queensland but these items aren't specifically written into most state firearms legislation. However, to be considered as children's toys, they must not exceed the recommended kinetic energy (KE) of 2500 J/m2 as outlined in the Australian/New Zealand Standard Safety of Toys - Part 1: Safety aspects related to mechanical and physical properties (Safety of Toys ASNZS ISO 8124.1:2019) [1]. The aim of this study was to determine if a range of gel blasters would conform to the Australian & New Zealand Standard and have projectiles with kinetic energy of less than 2500 J/m2. Utilising the testing procedure outlined in ASNZS ISO 8124.1:2019 (Australian/New Zealand Standard Safety of Toys - Part 1: Safety Aspects related to Mechanical and Physical Properties (Safety of Toys ASNZS ISO 8124.1:2019) [1]), a range of gel blasters were tested. In addition, a number of NERF™ toys and airsoft firearms were tested to provide reference between an accepted child's toy and items considered to be a firearm, such as airsoft firearms. A NERF™ toy (commonly referred to as a blaster) fires a foam projectile at very low velocities through direct spring/striker impact to the rear of the dart, battery-powered motorised flywheel, or by compressed air generated by a small piston inside a cylinder. Airsoft firearms are designed to fire hard plastic balls (typically 6 mm in diameter) and can achieve velocities upwards of 90 m/s with the potential to cause injuries to soft tissue. Results showed the KE per unit area of pellets fired from airsoft firearms significantly exceeded the recommended 2500 J/m2 ranging from approximately 10,620 J/m2 to 69,650 J/m2. Twenty of the twenty-four gel blasters tested (83 %) exceeded 2500 J/m2, with values ranging between 2112 J/m2 and 42,645 J/m2. NERF™ toys were found to be notably under 2500 J/m2, ranging from approximately 1230 J/m2 to 2129 J/m2. The results suggest that the majority of gel blasters (items of seizures) tested, currently being imported and marketed as children's toys in Australia, easily exceed 2500 J/m2 as outlined in the ASNZS ISO 8124.1:2019 and are not safe to be marketed and sold as children's toys. Reinforcing the position of most jurisdictions, the Australian Federal Police (AFP) in Canberra made the following statement in 2019: 'ACT (Australian Capital Territory) Policing is reminding the public that replica firearms known as gel blasters are illegal in the ACT'. Taking the results determined throughout this research and the statement by AFP into consideration, gel blasters should not be exempt from control under Firearms Legislation because they are claimed to be toy.

Exploring the influence of washing activities on the transfer and persistence of fibres in forensic science.

In forensic science, a robust and sound interpretation and evaluation of transferred fibre evidence requires an understanding of the principles and mechanisms that underpin fibre transfer, yet existing research lacks consistency and repeatability. This study investigates the impact of washing activities on both the release of fibres into wastewater and the transfer of constituent fibres from donor garments to receiver swatches. Using a low-cost friction tester and automated data collection through photography and ImageJ image processing software, controlled conditions were maintained for repeated experiments. Results indicated significant fibre release during wash cycles, with load size and donor garment history playing crucial roles. The donor garments subjected to repetitive washes exhibit a progressive decrease in the number of fibres transferred, independently of the load size. This study underscores the importance of considering a garment's washing history in forensic science contexts, but also for consistency in the way that data are collected.

Examining the use of alternative light sources in medico-legal assessments of blunt-force trauma: a systematic review.

The ability to analyze blunt-force trauma is crucial for deciphering valuable clues concerning mechanisms of injury and as evidence for medico-legal investigations. The use of alternate light sources (ALS) has been studied over the past decade, and is proposed to outperform conventional white light (CWL) during bruise assessments. In response to the growing interest of the technology worldwide, a systematic review of the literature was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) to address the ability of ALS to detect and visualize bruising. From an initial 4055 records identified, ten studies met the eligibly criteria and were selected for this review. Evaluation also included a novel framework, referred to as SPICOT, to further systematically assess both scientific evidence and risk of bias in forensic literature. Analysis reveals that narrowband wavelengths within in the infrared or ultraviolet spectral ranges do not significantly outperform CWL in visualizing or detecting bruising. However, wavelengths within the visible spectrum, particularly 415 nm combined with longpass or bandpass yellow filters, are more effective. However, the majority of selected studies only address the sensitivity of ALS, and therefore, results may only be considered valid when the location of a bruise is known. Further investigation is required to understand the specificity of ALS, in particular how the use of topical cosmetic products, previous wounds/scar-tissue, tattoos, moles and freckles may affect detection. The ethical concern regarding the interpretation of enhanced visualized trauma should also be considered in prospect discussions prior to implementing ALS into routine practice. Nevertheless, this review finds that narrowband ALS within the visible spectrum demonstrates potential for improved injury documentation, outperforming CWL in the detection and visualization of bruising.

Disaster victim identification: Stable isotope analysis and the identification of unknown decedents.

Within the complex world of disaster victim identification, or DVI, forensic science practitioners use a variety of investigative techniques to work toward a common goal: identification of the decedents, bringing closure to the affected communities. Identification is a complex undertaking; the event (disaster) also can be extraordinarily complex, as it may be an acute event, or one that spans months or years. Compounding this time issue, remains may be heavily fragmented, dispersed, commingled, or otherwise disrupted by either the perpetrators or the disaster itself. To help solve these complexities, we explore the use of stable isotope analysis (SIA) in DVI events. SIA can be used with a variety of body tissues (hair, nail, bone, and teeth), and each represents different time depths in a decedent's life. Bone collagen and tooth enamel carbonate are useful to reconstruct an individual's diet and source water intakes, respectively, leading to likely population or geographic origin determinations. Additionally, the carbon and nitrogen isotopic signatures of bone collagen have calculated intraperson ranges. These facts allow investigators to determine likely origin of remains using isotopic data and can be used to link skeletal elements (to an individual), or perhaps more importantly, show that remains are not linked. Application of SIA can thus speed remains identification by eliminating individuals from short lists for identification, linking or decoupling remains, and reducing the need for some DNA testing. These strategies and hypothesis tests should commence early in the DVI process to achieve maximum effectiveness.

Fuzzy-defined entities: A key concept to strengthen forensic science foundations?

According to the Sydney Declaration, "Forensic science is [… an] endeavour to study traces […] through their detection, recognition, recovery, examination and interpretation to understand anomalous events of public interest (e.g., crimes, security incidents)." This science is focused on establishing the nature and relationships among entities related to events having a potential legal impact. Entities can be (groups of) persons, objects, activities and their corresponding sources, events and traces. Although uniqueness of an entity has been traditionally accepted as a principle of forensic science, this paper argues and illustrates that such uniqueness is illusory: Not only can an entity evolve spatially and temporally, but at any specific instant, it differs from itself according to the level of precision at which it is considered. Its characteristics vary based on when, how and by whom it is perceived. We introduce the concept of fuzzy entities - defined to formally include some essential uncertainty or imprecision. The essential impreciseness and subjectivity of an entity gives a new perspective that allows us to revisit Kirk's principle of individuality and to propose to replace it with a new principle of fuzzy unicity. We believe that this new perspective has the potential to strengthen forensic science foundations and bring closer its disciplines, which is an important step towards a harmonized forensic science.

Simulation of Orbital Fractures Using Experimental and Mathematical Approaches: A Pilot Study.

This contribution gives basic information about the mechanical behavior of the facial part of the human skull cranium, i.e., the splanchnocranium, associated with external loads and injuries caused mainly by brachial violence. The main areas suffering from such violence include the orbit, frontal, and zygomatic bones. In this paper, as a first approach, brachial violence was simulated via quasi-static compression laboratory tests, in which cadaveric skulls were subjected to a load in a testing machine, increasing till fractures occurred. The test skulls were also used for research into the dynamic behavior, in which experimental and numerical analyses were performed. A relatively high variability in forces inducing the fractures has been observed (143-1403 N). The results lay the basis for applications mainly in forensic science, surgery, and ophthalmology.

A review study on forensic optometry: new insights in forensic science to solve crime scenes, domestic violence and sexual assaults.

Forensic science has made a lot of progress in the medical field, but still ocular signs are not so well known to forensic scientists, whereas ocular signs play a very important role in forensic science. The major goal of this study to describe the importance of eye related clues in forensic science to solve the crime scenes and know the actual cause of death for the conviction of the criminals and save an innocent persons. Narrative review was done to review the articles available on the PubMed, Google Scholar, Research Gate, Web of Science and Medline related to the forensic optometry about the various methods of identification and strategies to deal with the forensic cases. The review covered studies that focused on interventions for forensic optometry and eye-related clues to the current study target. Twenty-seven of the 54 studies that met the inclusion criteria yielded good results, and all examined the significance of eye-related clues in forensic optometry. Peer reviewed articles/studies were referred to ascertain the eye related clues in the forensic science. Some authors suggest that eye related clues are very important aspects towards the forensic science and done the clinical research on that aspects. Criminal cases, domestic abuse and sexual assault affect people of all socioeconomic backgrounds. As a result, these traits would be highly valuable in determining the way of death and the chronological history of events leading up to a crime.

Effect of humidity on postmortem changes in rats.

IMPORTANCE: In veterinary forensic science, accurately determining the postmortem interval (PMI) is crucial for identifying the causes of animal deaths. Autolysis, a significant postmortem process, influences PMI estimation, but its relationship with humidity is not well understood. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to improve the accuracy of PMI estimates in veterinary forensic cases by looking into how different humidity levels affect autolysis in different organs of rats. METHODS: The study involved 38 male rats, examining histopathological changes in their heart, liver, and pancreas. These organs were subjected to controlled humidity levels (20%, 55%, and 80%) at a constant 22°C. Tissue samples were collected at several intervals (0 h, 12 h, 24 h, 3 days, and 8 days) for comprehensive analysis. RESULTS: Distinct autolytic characteristics in animal organs emerged under varying humidity conditions. The low-humidity environment rapidly activated autolysis more than the high-humidity environment. In addition, it was found that lower humidity caused nuclear pyknosis, cytoplasmic disintegration, and myofiber interruption. The liver, in particular, showed portal triad aggregation and hepatocyte individuation. The pancreas experienced cell fragmentation and an enlarged intracellular space. High humidity also caused the loss of striations in cardiac tissues, and the liver showed vacuolation. Under these conditions, the pancreas changed eosinophilic secretory granules. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: The study successfully established a clear connection between the autolytic process in PMIs and relative humidity. These findings are significant for developing a more accurate and predictable method for PMI estimation in the field of veterinary forensic science.

Technical note: Application of Handheld X-ray fluorescence spectrometers in forensic analysis of cigarette ash.

Cigarettes are part of a collection of objects found everywhere and smoked by a large part of the population. Cigarette butts can be an essential piece of evidence in identifying a certain suspect/witness, as they can suggest the positive identification or exclusion of one or more brands by comparison or even DNA analysis. The main objective of this study is to test the capability of Handheld X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (HHXRF) to analyze the elemental concentration of individual cigarette ash of several tobacco brands and investigate if it is further possible to discriminate the different brands based on their ash's elemental concentration. This study reveals the capability of HHXRF to discriminate tobacco brands based on their ashes' elemental concentration, with the great advantage of the analyses being non-destructive and can be carried out on a small sample. In addition, this equipment can measure the ash's elemental concentrations on-site, allowing for less contamination and sample loss.