Case report: tularaemia in a white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar), Germany.

In 2021, a white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar) succumbed to illness shortly after transfer from one zoo to another in Germany, due to Francisella tularensis subsp. holarctica infection. To determine the source of infection, whole genome sequencing of the gibbon-derived isolate was performed and wild pest rodents (and captive squirrels) from both zoos were screened for F. tularensis. The F. tularensis whole genome sequence obtained from the gibbon was closely related to previous subclade B.281 sequences obtained from hares from Baden-Wuerttemberg, the same region where the gibbon was first housed. However, F. tularensis DNA was detected in one Norway rat from the receiving zoo. Therefore, neither zoo can be excluded as the source of infection.

A cooperation experiment with white-handed gibbons (Hylobates lar).

Cooperative behaviors among individuals of numerous species play a crucial role in social interactions. There is a special interest in investigating the occurrence of cooperation among apes because this knowledge could also shed light on evolutionary processes and help us understand the origin and development of cooperation in humans and primates in general. Gibbons are phylogenetically intermediate between the great apes and monkeys, and therefore represent a unique opportunity for comparisons. The aim of the present study was to discover whether or not white-handed gibbons (Hylobates lar) show cooperative behaviors. In order to test for the respective behaviors, the gibbons were presented with a commonly used experimental cooperative rope-pulling task. The gibbons in this study did not exhibit cooperative behaviors during the problem-solving task. However, prior training procedures could not be fully completed, hence this project constitutes only the onset of exploring cooperative behaviors in gibbons. Additional behavioral observations revealed that the gibbons spent significantly more time "out of arm's reach to everyone", suggesting that they are less often involved in social interactions, than other, more cooperative primates.

Population densities of Hylobates agilis in forests with different disturbance histories in Ulu Muda Forest Reserve, Malaysia.

Small ape habitat throughout Malaysia is rapidly being lost, degraded, and fragmented, and the effects of these changes on the abundance on this taxon are currently unknown. This study assessed the group density of Hylobates agilis in virgin forest, previously logged forest (1960s-1990s), and recently logged forest (2015-2017) of the Ulu Muda Forest Reserve (UMFR), Kedah, Malaysia. We conducted fixed-point active acoustic triangulation at nine survey areas to estimate group density. We used vegetation "speed plots" and satellite imagery to quantify habitat characteristics and used model selection to identify ecological predictors of group density variation. The estimated group density of H. agilis in UMFR was 4.03 ± 0.14 groups km-2 , with an estimated total of 2927 ± 102 groups in areas below 450 m a.s.l. in UMFR. Group density did not differ significantly among habitat types. The best ecological predictors for group density were canopy cover and proportion of deforested area. Areas with recent deforestation were associated with relatively high group densities, suggesting compression of the populations persisting in these habitat types. The consistently high group densities detected in all forest types emphasizes the importance of degraded forest as habitat for H. agilis. Because of the threats to small apes in Malaysia, and the uncertain status of most populations, we recommend a nationwide population census and regular monitoring to inform conservation planning and implementation. Most urgently, we call for immediate and permanent protection of UMFR and other forests in the Greater Ulu Muda landscape to protect the globally significant populations of H. agilis, as well as other charismatic and threatened megafauna, birds, and flora in the area.

Genetic analysis of hybridization between white-handed (Hylobates lar) and pileated (Hylobates pileatus) gibbons in a contact zone in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand.

Natural hybridization has played various roles in the evolutionary history of primates. Its consequences range from genetic introgression between taxa, formation of hybrid zones, and formation of new lineages. Hylobates lar, the white-handed gibbon, and Hylobates pileatus, the pileated gibbon, are largely allopatric species in Southeast Asia with a narrow contact zone in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand, which contains both parental types and hybrids. Hybrid individuals in the zone are recognizable by their intermediate pelage and vocal patterns, but have not been analyzed genetically. We analyzed mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA of 52 individuals to estimate the relative genetic contributions of the parental species to each individual, and the amount of introgression into the parental species. We obtained fecal samples from 33 H. lar, 15 H. pileatus and four phenotypically intermediate individuals in the contact zone. Both mitochondrial and microsatellite markers confirmed distinct differences between these taxa. Both H. lar and H. pileatus contributed to the maternal lineages of the hybrids based on mitochondrial analysis; hybrids were viable and present in socially normal reproductive pairs. The microsatellite analysis identified ten admixed individuals, four F1 hybrids, which corresponded to phenotypic hybrids, and six H. lar-like backcrosses. All 15 H. pileatus samples were identified as originating from genetically H. pileatus individuals with no H. lar admixture; hence, backcrossing is biased toward H. lar. A relatively low number of phenotypic hybrids and backcrossed individuals along with a high number of parental types indicates a bimodal hybrid zone, which suggests relatively strong bias in mate selection between the species.

Mandibular shape variation in mainland and insular hylobatids.

Although hylobatids are the most speciose of the living apes, their morphological interspecies and intraspecies variation remains poorly understood. Here, we assess mandibular shape variation in two species of Hylobates, white-handed (Hylobates lar) and black-handed (Hylobates agilis) gibbons. Using 71 three-dimensional landmarks to quantify mandibular shape, interspecies and intraspecies variation and geographic patterns of mandibular shape are examined in a mixed sex sample of adult H. lar and H. agilis through generalized Procrustes analysis, Procrustes analysis of variance, and principal components analysis. We find that relative to H. agilis, H. lar exhibits a higher amount of variation in mandibular shape. Both species demonstrate similar allometric patterns in mandibular shape. We also highlight a geographic pattern in mandibular shape variation. Compared to mainland hylobatids, insular hylobatids have relatively lower, more posteriorly oriented, and anteroposteriorly wider mandibular condyles, with an increased distance between the condyles and the coronoid processes. This geographic pattern could reflect differences in functional demands on the mandible during mastication and/or could be driven by factors often associated with evolutionary pressures of island populations relative to mainland populations. The findings of this study highlight how little is known about Hylobates morphological variation and how important this is for using Hylobates to help interpret the primate fossil record. Understanding interspecific and intraspecific variation in extant primates is vital to interpreting variation in the primate fossil record.

Brevity is not a universal in animal communication: evidence for compression depends on the unit of analysis in small ape vocalizations.

Evidence for compression, or minimization of code length, has been found across biological systems from genomes to human language and music. Two linguistic laws-Menzerath's Law (which states that longer sequences consist of shorter constituents) and Zipf's Law of abbreviation (a negative relationship between signal length and frequency of use)-are predictions of compression. It has been proposed that compression is a universal in animal communication, but there have been mixed results, particularly in reference to Zipf's Law of abbreviation. Like songbirds, male gibbons (Hylobates muelleri) engage in long solo bouts with unique combinations of notes which combine into phrases. We found strong support for Menzerath's Law as the longer a phrase, the shorter the notes. To identify phrase types, we used state-of-the-art affinity propagation clustering, and were able to predict phrase types using support vector machines with a mean accuracy of 74%. Based on unsupervised phrase type classification, we did not find support for Zipf's Law of abbreviation. Our results indicate that adherence to linguistic laws in male gibbon solos depends on the unit of analysis. We conclude that principles of compression are applicable outside of human language, but may act differently across levels of organization in biological systems.

Reversal of precedence: The oldest available name of the Javan gibbon and a complete synonymy of the species.

Over the course of their long research history, a plethora of scientific names have been applied to the different species of apes (Hominoidea). Although numerous authors, past and present, have attempted to reconstruct hominoid nomenclatural history in detail, it appears that parts of it, mostly concerning the lesser apes or gibbons, still remain overlooked. Here I show that Simia Nanodes Lichtenstein, 1791 is a senior synonym of Simia Moloch Audebert, 1797, otherwise regarded as the oldest binomen applicable to the Javan gibbon. However, since Simia Nanodes failed to enter common usage, these names are subject to a reversal of precedence as defined by Article 23.9 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Simia Moloch Audebert, 1797 must be maintained as a nomen protectum, resulting in Hylobates moloch (Audebert, 1797) staying the valid name of the species. Simia Nanodes Lichtenstein, 1791 is declared a nomen oblitum. In compliance with this, I provide a complete scientific synonymy of the Javan gibbon and comment on its early research history.

Acute human orthopneumovirus infection in a captive white-handed gibbon.

We report herein a fatal case of acute human orthopneumovirus (formerly respiratory syncytial virus) infection in a captive white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar). Other members of the housing group had mild respiratory signs. Gross examination revealed bilateral pulmonary congestion and froth in the bronchi. Microscopically, the lungs had lymphocytic, neutrophilic infiltration of the interstitium and alveolar walls. There was necrosis of terminal bronchiolar epithelium and terminal bronchioles, and surrounding alveoli contained necrotic and exfoliated epithelial cells admixed with histiocytes and syncytial cells. Additional lesions included nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis, and epidermal hyperkeratosis and hyperplasia with syncytial cell formation. PCR screening for 12 human respiratory viruses was positive for orthopneumovirus in multiple tissues, including lung, and immunohistochemical staining for human orthopneumovirus detected viral antigen within bronchial epithelial cells. IHC and PCR for measles virus on preserved sections were negative. White-handed gibbons have not been previously reported as hosts for human orthopneumovirus, an important respiratory pathogen of both primates and humans.

Adherence to Menzerath's Law is the exception (not the rule) in three duetting primate species.

Across diverse systems including language, music and genomes, there is a tendency for longer sequences to contain shorter constituents; this phenomenon is known as Menzerath's Law. Whether Menzerath's Law is a universal in biological systems, is the result of compression (wherein shortest possible strings represent the maximum amount of information) or emerges from an inevitable relationship between sequence and constituent length remains a topic of debate. In non-human primates, the vocalizations of geladas, male gibbons and chimpanzees exhibit patterns consistent with Menzerath's Law. Here, we use existing datasets of three duetting primate species (tarsiers, titi monkeys and gibbons) to examine the wide-scale applicability of Menzerath's Law. Primate duets provide a useful comparative model to test for the broad-scale applicability of Menzerath's Law, as they evolved independently under presumably similar selection pressures and are emitted under the same context(s) across taxa. Only four out of the eight call types we examined were consistent with Menzerath's Law. Two of these call types exhibited a negative relationship between the position of the note in the call and note duration, indicating that adherence to Menzerath's Law in these call types may be related to breathing constraints. Exceptions to Menzerath's Law occur when notes are relatively homogeneous, or when species-specific call structure leads to a deterministic decrease in note duration. We show that adherence to Menzerath's Law is the exception rather than the rule in duetting primates. It is possible that selection pressures for long-range signals that can travel effectively over large distances was stronger than that of compression in primate duets. Future studies investigating adherence to Menzerath's Law across the vocal repertoires of these species will help us better elucidate the pressures that shape both short- and long-distance acoustic signals.

A Behavioural Case Study of Early Social Isolation of a Subadult White-Handed Gibbon (Hylobates lar).

Our aim in this study was to analyse the effects of early social isolation on the behaviour of a white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar) and at the same time to improve his level of welfare. The subject was a 6-year-old male, isolated from conspecific as well as other non-human primates since he was 3 months old. We presented the gibbon with a series of species-specific vocalisations, and we then introduced a 23-year-old conspecific female into his cage. Our subject did not respond to playbacks, whereas he immediately interacted positively with the conspecific female. After 2 days of presentation, the pair started to spend time in proximity to each other and initiated grooming through the wire-mesh dividing the cages. Four days later we recorded vocal duets. No obvious ste-reotypic behaviours were observed, and the prolonged isolation did not seem to compromise the ability of the young gibbon to socialise with the female conspecific. It appears that prolonged isolation does not always compromise the possibility of recovering socially in a satisfactory manner.

An analysis of white-handed gibbon male song reveals speech-like phrases.

OBJECTIVES: Our goal was to document song phrases of the white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar), an Asian ape that produces elaborate songs, often in well-coordinated male/female duets. We focused on the male coda, which is produced during vocal turn-taking with one's mate, and particularly its phrases containing rapid spectral and temporal variation, to investigate if modulation rates resemble those of lip-smacking in other nonhuman primates and human speech rhythm. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We produced recordings from a large population of wild gibbons. Using terminology consistent with that used to describe vocalizations in other singing species, we analyzed coda phrases, overall coda properties, coda distinctiveness across individuals, and flexibility of phrase production within song bouts. RESULTS: Our song phrase-level analysis showed that male codas differed between individuals and increase in complexity within song bouts by the addition of the only two male-specific phrases of the species' repertoire. These phrases differ from all others of the species and from vocalizations typical of the larger, nonhuman great apes, in that they contain rapid within-phrase modulation. Their modulation rates (6.82 and 7.34 Hz) are similar to that of lip-smacking in other nonhuman primates and speech in humans and, like human speech, are produced exclusively during exhalation. One phrase type (trills) contains multiple notes per exhalation, another characteristic similar to speech but not most primate vocalizations. DISCUSSION: Our data highlight the complexity and flexibility of gibbon song, and show that particular phrase features likely arose from sexual selection pressures and possess similarities to human speech rhythm.

Leaf swallowing and parasite expulsion in Khao Yai white-handed gibbons (Hylobates lar), the first report in an Asian ape species.

Leaf swallowing behavior, known as a form of self-medication for the control of nematode and tapeworm infection, occurs widely in all the African great apes (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii, P. t. troglodytes, P. t. verus, P. t. vellerosus, Pan paniscus, Gorilla gorilla graueri), except mountain gorillas. It is also reported to occur in a similar context across a wide array of other animal taxa including, domestic dogs, wolves, brown bears, and civets. Despite long-term research on Asian great and small apes, this is the first report of leaf swallowing in an Asian species, the white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar) in Khao Yai National Park, central Thailand. We present the first evidence of leaf swallowing (Gironniera nervosa Planch CANNABACEA) behavior (N = 5 cases) and parasite (Streptopharagus pigmentatus) expulsion (N = 4 cases), recorded during 4,300 hr of direct animal observations during two distinct research projects. We recovered 4-18 rough, hairy, and hispid surfaced leaves from each sample, undigested and folded, from the freshly evacuated feces of five different individuals (2 males, 3 females, 5 to 34+ years old) living in three different social groups, between the hours of 06:00 to 10:30. Based on close inspection of the leaves, as observed in chimpanzees, it was clear that they were taken into the mouth, one at a time, folded and detached from the stem with the teeth before swallowing them whole. All instances occurred during the rainy season, the time when nematode worms were also found in the feces, although they were not found together with leaves in the same feces. These striking similarities in the details of leaf swallowing between white-handed gibbons and African great apes, and other animal species, suggest a similar self-medicative function.

Changes in the primate trade in indonesian wildlife markets over a 25-year period: Fewer apes and langurs, more macaques, and slow lorises.

Indonesia has amongst the highest primate species richness, and many species are included on the country's protected species list, partially to prevent over-exploitation. Nevertheless traders continue to sell primates in open wildlife markets especially on the islands of Java and Bali. We surveyed 13 wildlife markets in 2012-2014 and combined our results with previous surveys from 1990-2009 into a 122-survey dataset with 2,424 records of 17 species. These data showed that the diversity of species in trade decreased over time, shifting from rare rainforest-dwelling primates traded alongside more widespread species that are not confined to forest to the latter type only. In the 1990s and early 2000s orangutans, gibbons and langurs were commonly traded alongside macaques and slow lorises but in the last decade macaques and slow lorises comprised the bulk of the trade. In 2012-2014 we monitored six wildlife markets in Jakarta, Bandung and Garut (all on Java), and Denpasar (Bali). During 51 surveys we recorded 1,272 primates of eight species. Traders offered long-tailed macaque (total 1,007 individuals) and three species of slow loris (228 individuals) in five of the six markets, whereas they traded ebony langurs (18 individuals), and pig-tailed macaques (14 individuals) mostly in Jakarta. Pramuka and Jatinegara markets, both in Jakarta, stood out as important hubs for the primate trade, with a clear shift in importance over time from the former to the latter. Slow lorises, orangutans, gibbons and some langurs are protected under Indonesian law, which prohibits all trade in them; of these protected species, only the slow lorises remained common in trade throughout the 25-year period. Trade in non-protected macaques and langurs is subject to strict regulations-which market traders did not follow-making all the market trade in primates that we observed illegal. Trade poses a substantial threat to Indonesian primates, and without enforcement, the sheer volume of trade may mean that species of Least Concern or Near Threatened may rapidly decline. Am. J. Primatol. 79:e22517, 2017. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Modelling Population Viability of Three Independent Javan Gibbon (Hylobates moloch) Populations on Java, Indonesia.

Population viability analysis is a predictive procedure that uses a combination of different modelling approaches to estimate species vulnerability to extinction. Javan gibbons (Hylobates moloch) are vulnerable to local extinction primarily due to loss of habitat and hunting for the illegal pet trade. Using the modelling software VORTEX, we assessed the status of Javan gibbons in 3 areas (Ujung Kulon National Park, Halimun-Salak National Park, and Dieng Mountains) which hold over half of the remaining estimated number of gibbons on Java. Ujung Kulon and Halimun-Salak are long-time protected areas, whereas Dieng Mountains remain unprotected. For each area, we calculated the probability of extinction over a 100-year time period by testing different area-specific scenarios (e.g., hunting, deforestation, and increase in carrying capacity). Our modelling suggests each of the populations has a high chance of becoming extinct within the next 100 years if hunting and deforestation persist. If these threats are eliminated, the model shows each of the populations are large enough to persist in the long term whilst maintaining high levels of current genetic diversity. We conclude that specific actions should be implemented to develop more inclusive conservation management practices, especially improving awareness regarding the illegal wildlife trade and increased protection of wild populations and their habitats.

A simple technique to repair a hand fracture in a captive Siamang.

A 5-year-old female Siamang (Hylobates syndactilus) in captivity sustained a displaced closed fracture of the proximal phalanx of the middle digit, resulting in finger deformity and hand functional disability. Anatomical reduction and stabilization of the fracture were obtained surgically using two multifilament wire sutures. The primate had a successful functional recovery.

Application of multicolor banding combined with heterochromatic and locus-specific probes identify evolutionary conserved breakpoints in Hylobates pileatus.

BACKGROUND: The question what makes Homo sapiens sapiens (HSA) special among other species is one of the basic questions of mankind. A small contribution to answer this question is to study the chromosomal constitution of HSA compared to other, closely related species. In order to check the types and extent of evolutionary conserved breakpoints we studied here for the first time the chromosomes of Hylobates pileatus (HPI) compared to HSA and Hylobates lar (HLA) by means of molecular cytogenetics. RESULTS: Overall, 68 new evolutionary conserved breakpoints compared to HSA could be characterized in this study. Interestingly, only seven of those were different compared to HLA. However, application of heterochromatic human DNA-probes provided evidence that observed high chromosomal rearrangement rates of gibbons in HPI happened rather in these repetitive elements than in euchromatin, even though most centromeric positions were preserved in HPI compared to HSA. CONCLUSION: Understanding genomes of other species and comparing them to HSA needs full karyotypic and high resolution genomic data to approach both: euchromatic and heterochromatic regions of the studied chromosome-content. This study provides full karyotypic data and previously not available data on heterochromatin-syntenies of HPI and HSA.

The Functional Anatomy of the Carpometacarpal Complex in Anthropoids and Its Implications for the Evolution of the Hominoid Hand.

Previously, we described several features of the carpometacarpal joints in extant large-bodied apes that are likely adaptations to the functional demands of vertical climbing and suspension. We observed that all hominids, including modern humans and the 4.4-million-year-old hominid Ardipithecus ramidus, lacked these features. Here, we assess the uniqueness of these features in a large sample of monkey, ape, and human hands. These new data provide additional insights into the functional adaptations and evolution of the anthropoid hand. Our survey highlights a series of anatomical adaptations that restrict motion between the second and third metacarpals (MC2 and MC3) and their associated carpals in extant apes, achieved via joint reorganization and novel energy dissipation mechanisms. Their hamate-MC4 and -MC5 joint surface morphologies suggest limited mobility, at least in Pan. Gibbons and spider monkeys have several characters (angled MC3, complex capitate-MC3 joint topography, variably present capitate-MC3 ligaments) that suggest functional convergence in response to suspensory locomotion. Baboons have carpometacarpal morphology suggesting flexion/extension at these joints beyond that observed in most other Old World monkeys, probably as an energy dissipating mechanism minimizing collision forces during terrestrial locomotion. All hominids lack these specializations of the extant great apes, suggesting that vertical climbing was never a central feature of our ancestral locomotor repertoire. Furthermore, the reinforced carpometacarpus of vertically climbing African apes was likely appropriated for knuckle-walking in concert with other novel potential energy dissipating mechanisms. The most parsimonious explanation of the structural similarity of these carpometacarpal specializations in great apes is that they evolved independently.

Premolar root and canal variation in extant non-human hominoidea.

OBJECTIVES: The premolar sub-cervical region in four non-human extant ape genera are examined to: 1) define a classification scheme for the premolar root system in order to rigorously characterize, quantify and document variation in root and canal, form, number and configuration; 2) compare this variation within and between genera; and 3) test the hypotheses that sex and size (i.e., the "size/number continuum," Shields, ) of the premolar are determinants of root/canal form and/or number. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Microtomography and 3D visualization software are utilized to examine a large sample of Hylobates, Pan, Gorilla, and Pongo (n = 951 teeth). Each premolar root system is examined to ascertain the expected level of variability for each taxon. Cervical surface area (mm2 ) serves as a metric proxy for tooth size. A Chi-square test of independence is used to assess for variability differences between and within each taxon, and Mann-Whitney U tests are employed to assess the predicted relationship between tooth size and variation within each taxon. RESULTS: Our findings indicate that root and canal configurations, non-metric root traits and tooth size can distinguish between extant ape genera. Within the four ape taxa, premolar size variation is generally, but not always, correlated with canal/root number. Our results indicate that males and females within genera differ in tooth size but not in canal/root form and number. DISCUSSION: We report previously undocumented variation in the study taxa. Our results are discussed within the context of Miocene Apes as well as the developmental and systematic implications. Am J Phys Anthropol 158:209-226, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Gibbon (Hylobates lar) reintroduction success in Phuket, Thailand, and its conservation benefits.

We summarize the results from a long-term gibbon reintroduction project in Phuket, Thailand, and evaluate its benefits to conservation. Between October 2002 and November 2012, eight breeding families of white-handed gibbons (Hylobates lar) were returned to the wild in Khao Phra Thaew non-hunting area (KPT). Wild gibbons were extirpated from Phuket Island by the early 1980s, but the illegal wildlife trade has continued to bring young gibbons from elsewhere to the island's popular tourist areas as pets and photo props. The Gibbon Rehabilitation Project (GRP) has rescued and rehabilitated confiscated and donated captive gibbons since 1992 and aims to repopulate the island's last sizable forest area. Following unsuccessful early attempts at translocation in the 1990s, GRP has now developed specific methods for gibbon reintroduction that have led to the establishment of a small independent, reproducing population of captive-raised and wild-born gibbons on Phuket. Eleven infants have been born wild within the reintroduced population, including a second generation wild-born gibbon in September 2012. Benefits of the GRP project include restoration of the gibbon population on Phuket, rescue of illegally kept gibbons, public education, training of personnel in gibbon conservation work, and gaining experience which may prove useful in saving more severely threatened species. It is unlikely that gibbon (and other large primate) translocations will make a significant contribution to conservation of the species as a whole, and primate translocation projects should not be judged solely by this criterion.

Comprehensive characterization of evolutionary conserved breakpoints in four New World Monkey karyotypes compared to Chlorocebus aethiops and Homo sapiens.

Comparative cytogenetic analysis in New World Monkeys (NWMs) using human multicolor banding (MCB) probe sets were not previously done. Here we report on an MCB based FISH-banding study complemented with selected locus-specific and heterochromatin specific probes in four NWMs and one Old World Monkey (OWM) species, i.e. in Alouatta caraya (ACA), Callithrix jacchus (CJA), Cebus apella (CAP), Saimiri sciureus (SSC), and Chlorocebus aethiops (CAE), respectively. 107 individual evolutionary conserved breakpoints (ECBs) among those species were identified and compared with those of other species in previous reports. Especially for chromosomal regions being syntenic to human chromosomes 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 16 previously cryptic rearrangements could be observed. 50.4% (54/107) NWM-ECBs were colocalized with those of OWMs, 62.6% (62/99) NWM-ECBs were related with those of Hylobates lar (HLA) and 66.3% (71/107) NWM-ECBs corresponded with those known from other mammalians. Furthermore, human fragile sites were aligned with the ECBs found in the five studied species and interestingly 66.3% ECBs colocalized with those fragile sites (FS). Overall, this study presents detailed chromosomal maps of one OWM and four NWM species. This data will be helpful to further investigation on chromosome evolution in NWM and hominoids in general and is prerequisite for correct interpretation of future sequencing based genomic studies in those species.