Effects of simple cage enrichment and its removal on the behavior and welfare of American mink (Neogale vison).

Environmental enrichment may reduce stereotypies in fur-farmed mink. North American mink standards require manipulable enrichment objects within cages. However, mink can rapidly destroy objects inhibiting continuous enrichment presence, which may have negative welfare impacts. This experimental study determined the effects of removing simple cage manipulable enrichments (plastic chains and dumbbells), either short-term or longer-term, on the behavioral expression of welfare in fur-farmed mink. Locomotor stereotypies, normal activity, sub-types of inactivity related to boredom, and tail fur-chewing were recorded across four treatment groups with either (1) no enrichment, (2) continuous enrichment, (3) short (temporary), or (4) long-term enrichment removal. Contrary to predictions, locomotor stereotypies, and scrabbling were not reduced by the enrichments, nor affected by the enrichment removal. Observations at the beginning of the trial showed the non-enriched mink spent the least amount of time lying with their eyes open (i.e., the least bored). The lack of enrichment may have increased fur-chewing on the tail, but larger sample sizes would be needed for statistical confirmation. This research contributes to the literature on evaluating simple, practical enrichments for improving fur-farmed mink welfare.

Evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 passive surveillance in Lithuanian mink farms, 2020-2021.

The newly emerged SARS-CoV-2, causing COVID-19 in humans, is also infecting American mink (Neovison vison), used in fur production. Since 2020, passive surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 in mink farms was implemented in Lithuania. Here, we describe data from a survey of all 57 active Lithuanian mink farms carried out during November-December 2021 to complement passive surveillance in the country. In all 57 mink farms, nasopharyngeal swab samples were collected from dead or live mink and tested by real-time RT-PCR. Dead mink samples were tested in pools of 5, while live mink samples were tested individually. In 19 mink farms, blood serum was collected and tested for antibodies to determine previous exposure to the virus. Environmental samples from 55 farms were also collected and tested in pooled samples by real-time RT-PCR. The present survey has detected 22.81% viral RNA-positive mink farms and a high number of mink farms that were exposed (84.21, 95% CI 67.81-100%) to the virus. The increasing exposure of mink farms to the virus due to growing human COVID-19 cases and limitations of passive surveillance could explain the observed epidemiological situation of SARS-CoV-2 in Lithuanian mink farms, compared to the few positive farms previously detected by passive surveillance. The unexpected widespread exposure of mink farms to SARS-CoV-2 suggests that passive surveillance is ineffective for early detection of SARS-CoV-2 in mink. Further studies are needed to reveal the present status in previously infected mink farms.

A comparison of sampling and testing approaches for the surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 in farmed American mink.

Surveillance for SARS-CoV-2 in American mink (Neovison vison) is a global priority because outbreaks on mink farms have potential consequences for animal and public health. Surveillance programs often focus on screening natural mortalities; however, significant knowledge gaps remain regarding sampling and testing approaches. Using 76 mink from 3 naturally infected farms in British Columbia, Canada, we compared the performance of 2 reverse-transcription real-time PCR (RT-rtPCR) targets (the envelope [E] and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase [RdRp] genes) as well as serology. We also compared RT-rtPCR and sequencing results from nasopharyngeal, oropharyngeal, skin, and rectal swabs, as well as nasopharyngeal samples collected using swabs and interdental brushes. We found that infected mink were generally RT-rtPCR-positive on all samples; however, Ct values differed significantly among sample types (nasopharyngeal < oropharyngeal < skin < rectal). There was no difference in the results of nasopharyngeal samples collected using swabs or interdental brushes. For most mink (89.4%), qualitative (i.e., positive vs. negative) serology and RT-rtPCR results were concordant. However, mink were positive on RT-rtPCR and negative on serology and vice versa, and there was no significant correlation between Ct values on RT-rtPCR and percent inhibition on serology. Both the E and RdRp targets were detectable in all sample types, albeit with a small difference in Ct values. Although SARS-CoV-2 RNA can be detected in multiple sample types, passive surveillance programs in mink should focus on multiple target RT-rtPCR testing of nasopharyngeal samples in combination with serology.

Identification of intestinal parasites in wild American mink (Neovison vison) from Biebrza and Narew national parks (Poland).

American mink (Neovison vison) is an invasive species in the sylvatic environment of Poland. Mink are exposed to different parasite infections as their preys serve as intermediate and/or paratenic hosts. The study aimed to discriminate the pattern of intestinal parasite infections in mink inhabiting Biebrza (BNP) and Narew (NNP) national parks. Gastrointestinal tract examinations revealed Coccidia, Echinostomatidae, Taenidae, and Capillariidae parasites. There was no significant difference in the parasite burden of mink, but patterns of infections varied between both localizations. Coccidia were found in 3.8% of BNP vs. 6.7% of NNP mink. Fluke prevalence was significantly higher in NNP 27.5% compared to 7.7% in BNP mink. Tapeworms were only found in 3.4% of NNP mink. Significantly more Aonchotheca eggs were found in BNP 34.6% vs. 11.4% in NNP mink. The intensity of coccidiosis and aonchothecosis was low in both parks. Fluke intensity varied between low to moderate (ranging from 1 to 16) in BNP and low to massive (ranging from 1 to 117) in NNP mink. Coinfections of various parasite species were noted in both areas. Morphological and DNA analysis revealed that flukes belonged to Isthiomorpha melis and tapeworms to Versteria mustelae. It was the first isolation of V. mustelae in mink of those localizations. In conclusion, our study showed that mink indwelling Biebrza and Narew national parks are moderately infested with parasites. Results suggest that mink play an important role as a reservoir for parasites endangering endemic mustelids, becoming also a potential risk factor in case of accidental transmissions to farm mink. That is why, more strict biosecurity measures are required to protect farm mink.

An Ethogram of the Reproductive Behaviour of the American Mink (Neovison vison) in Farmed Conditions.

Ethograms can serve as benchmarks against which abnormal animal behaviour can be identified, and then normal behaviour can be restored by appropriately modifying the environment in which an individual resides. The aim of the present study was to create an ethogram of the reproductive behaviour of American mink kept in farmed conditions. The research material consisted of 12 one-year-old male American mink, pearl coloured, selected randomly from among the varieties of coloured mink on the farm, and 60 two-year-old females. The animals participating in the study were grouped into two breeding sets, each consisting of 30 females and 6 males. Reproductive rituals included chasing the female, grasping her neck with the teeth, marking the local area, mounting the partner, and sniffing the neck, anal and genital areas. The copulation times recorded in this study varied greatly, ranging from several minutes to over two hours. The obtained results indicate that the American mink can express some natural reproductive behaviour in breeding conditions, which may also be an indicator of the welfare of these animals.

Urinary and plasma metabolome of farm mink (Neovison vison) after an intervention with raw or cooked poultry offal: a 1H NMR investigation.

The introduction of high amounts of cooked poultry offal in mink feed has been associated with health problems in growing mink. Cooking mink feed is a convenient way of reducing microbiological activity, but it may have a negative effect on raw material quality and animal welfare. This study investigates growth and health of mink fed raw or cooked poultry offal and describes urinary and blood plasma metabolic changes related to the feeding. A total of 65 male mink were divided in three feeding groups, two fed cooked offal and one group fed raw offal, and the plasma and urine samples were collected at 3 time points during the growth. Both bio-fluids and feed samples were measured by 1H NMR spectroscopy and resulted metabolomics data were analysed using univariate and multivariate statistical methods that revealed dominating effect of the mink growth stages and to a less extent the feeding regime. Metabolome differences in relation to low body mass index (BMI) and kidney lesions were observed in plasma. Disease and decrease in BMI was associated with high creatinine and dimethylglycine content in plasma. These molecules were also particularly indicative of the cooked feeds. Moreover, low urinary taurine levels were also associated with disease and low BMI. Individual mink appeared to show negative effects of the cooked feed diet, including impaired growth and gross pathological lesions involving the kidneys. This may be related to the absorption of essential metabolites such as amino acids and fats, necessary for mink growth, that are negatively impacted by the cooking process.

Occurrence of multidrug resistant Gram-negative bacteria and resistance genes in semi-aquatic wildlife - Trachemys scripta, Neovison vison and Lutra lutra - as sentinels of environmental health.

Emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in bacterial pathogens has been recognized as a major public health concern worldwide. In the present study, antimicrobial resistant Gram-negative bacteria (AMRGNB) and AMR genes were assessed in semi-aquatic wild animals from a highly populated and intensive farming region of Spain, Catalonia. Cloacal/rectal swab samples were collected from 241 animals coming from invasive species Trachemys scripta (n = 91) and Neovison vison (n = 131), and endangered-protected species Lutra lutra (n = 19). Accordingly, 133 (55.2%) isolates were identified as AMRGNB. Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas fluorescens were among the bacteria most frequently isolated in all animal species, but other nosocomial agents such as Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella spp. or Citrobacter freundii, were also prevalent. The phenotypic susceptibility testing showed the highest resistance to ß-lactams (91%). Molecular analysis showed 25.3% of turtles (15.4% ESBL/Ampc genes), 21% of Eurasian otters (10.5% ESBL/Ampc genes) and 14.5% of American minks (8.4% ESBL/Ampc genes) were positive to AMR genes. The genotyping frequency was tetM (20.6%), blaCMY-2 (13%), ermB (6.1%), blaCMY-1 (4.6%), blaCTX-M-15 (3.1%) and mcr-4 (0.8%). Turtles had a larger prevalence of AMRGNB and AMR genes than mustelids, but American mink carried mcr-4 colistin-resistance gene. Moreover, cluster analysis of AMR gene distribution revealed that an ESBL/AmpC cluster in a highly populated area comprising big metropolitan regions, and another tetM/emrB cluster in an expended area with highly intensive livestock production. Although the mcr-4 positive case was not included in those clusters, that case was found in a county with a high pig farm density. In conclusion, semi-aquatic wild animals are a good sentinel for environmental contamination with AMRGNB and AMR genes. Therefore, One Health Approach is urgently needed in highly populated regions, and with intensive livestock production like Catalonia.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 in Farmed Mink (Neovison vison), Poland.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the etiologic agent of coronavirus disease and has been spreading worldwide since December 2019. The virus can infect different animal species under experimental conditions, and mink on fur farms in Europe and other areas are susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection. We investigated SARS-CoV-2 infection in 91 mink from a farm in northern Poland. Using reverse transcription PCR, antigen detection, and next-generation sequencing, we confirmed that 15 animals were positive for SARS-CoV-2. We verified this finding by sequencing full viral genomes and confirmed a virus variant that has sporadic mutations through the full genome sequence in the spike protein (G75V and C1247F). We were unable to find other SARS-CoV-2 sequences simultaneously containing these 2 mutations. Country-scale monitoring by veterinary inspection should be implemented to detect SARS-CoV-2 in other mink farms.

First Description of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Two Feral American Mink (Neovison vison) Caught in the Wild.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causal agent of COVID-19, is considered a pathogen of animal origin that is mainly transmitted from human to human. Several animal species can be naturally or experimentally infected by SARS-CoV-2, with compelling evidence that mink is highly susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Human-to-mink infection cases have been reported and there are also suggestions that mink-to-human infection occurs. Mink infections have been reported to date only on fur farms, except for one infected free- ranging wild mink near a Utah (USA) fur farm, which suggests a transmission pathway from farms to wild mink. We now report the detection of SARS-CoV-2 in 2 of 13 feral dark brown American mink (Neovison vison) trapped in the Valencian Community (Eastern Spain), during an invasive species trapping campaign. They were trapped in riverbeds in sparsely inhabited rural areas known to harbor self-sustained feral mink populations. The closest fur farm is about 20 km away. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected by two-step RT-PCR in these animals' mesenteric lymph nodes and was confirmed by sequencing a 397-nucleotide amplified region of the S gene, yielding identical sequences in both animals. A molecular phylogenetic analysis was run on this sequence, which was found to correspond to the consensus SARS-CoV-2 sequence from Wuhan. Our findings appear to represent the first example of SARS-CoV-2 acquired in the wild by feral mink in self-sustained populations.

Fermented Rapeseed Meal as a Component of the Mink Diet (Neovison vison) Modulating the Gastrointestinal Tract Microbiota.

Fermented rapeseed meal (FRSM) was used in the diet of American mink (Neovison vison). An advantage of this product is its prebiotic and functional properties, which can modify the bacterial microbiota of the GIT. A control group and three experimental groups were formed, with 60 animals in each group. The control group received a basal diet and the experimental groups received a diet with a 2%, 4% or 6% of FRSM as a replacement of extruded wheat. Bacillus subtilis strain 87Y was used to ferment the rapeseed meal (RSM). The study was conducted on mink from the age of 16-17 weeks until slaughter. Changes in the microbiota were analysed in samples of the animals' faeces and intestinal contents. The analyses included determination of the total number of bacteria and fungi, the number of coliforms and Escherichia coli, the total number of anaerobic Clostridium perfringens, and the presence of Salmonella spp. In animals receiving 4% and 6% FRSM (groups II and III), the content of microscopic fungi and the number of C. perfringens bacteria was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower than in the animals from the control group (group 0). A decrease in E. coli was observed in all experimental groups (I, II and III), although these differences were not statistically significant. The inclusion of FRSM in the feed ration did not affect the number of lactic acid intestinal bacteria. Analysis of the results obtained from the stool samples showed that the inclusion of FRSM in the ration did not significantly affect the number of microorganisms in each group. However, as in the case of the intestinal contents, in these samples there was a decrease in the total number of C. perfringens in the experimental groups (I, II and III), with a simultaneous increase in the number of mesophilic bacteria in relation to the control. There was no detection of Salmonella bacteria in any of the analysed material.

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Cryptosporidium in Feral and Farmed American Mink (Neovison vison) in Denmark.

PURPOSE: To investigate the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. infection and Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in farmed and feral mink in Denmark. METHODS: We examined meat juice from 235 feral mink and 306 farmed mink for T. gondii antibodies, and faecal samples from 113 feral mink and 166 farmed mink for Cryptosporidium oocyst excretion. Meat juice was analysed using a commercial indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and oocyst excretion was identified by a modified Ziehl-Neelsen method. RESULTS: All farmed mink tested sero-negative, while 53.6% of feral mink were T. gondii sero-positive. The probability of being sero-positive for T. gondii was not associated with recent escapes from farms (p = 0.468), but was significantly higher for male feral mink (64.2%) than female feral mink (42.5%) (p = 0.0008). Only one feral mink and four farmed mink (2.4%) excreted Cryptosporidium oocysts. CONCLUSION: Farmed mink were all T. gondii sero-negative, whereas approximately half the feral mink were sero-positive. Cryptosporidium prevalence in farmed and feral mink were low. Overall, the public health risk of transmission of these two parasites via mink in Denmark is low.

SARS-CoV-2 Exposure in Escaped Mink, Utah, USA.

In August 2020, outbreaks of coronavirus disease were confirmed on mink farms in Utah, USA. We surveyed mammals captured on and around farms for evidence of infection or exposure. Free-ranging mink, presumed domestic escapees, exhibited high antibody titers, suggesting a potential severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 transmission pathway to native wildlife.

High Genetic Diversity of an Invasive Alien Species: Comparison between Fur-Farmed and Feral American Mink (Neovison vison) in China.

Genetic characteristics play an important role in alien species for achieving high adaptation and rapid evolution in a new environment. The American mink (Neovison vison) is one of the best-known and most widespread invasive species that has successfully invaded the Eurasian mainland over quite a short period, including most parts of northeastern China. However, genetic information on farmed and feral American mink populations introduced in China is completely lacking. In this study, we combined mitochondrial DNA sequences and polymorphic microsatellites to examine the genetic divergence and genetic diversity of farmed and feral American mink populations. Our results suggest that there is admixture of individuals of different genetic characteristics between farmed and feral populations of mink. Furthermore, the genetic diversity of both farmed and feral American mink populations was high, and no bottleneck or population expansion was detected in most of the populations. These findings not only highlight the genetic characteristics of American mink in northeastern China but also contribute to the general understanding of the invasiveness of farmed species.

Preliminary report of an outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 in mink and mink farmers associated with community spread, Denmark, June to November 2020.

In June-November 2020, SARS-CoV-2-infected mink were detected in 290 of 1,147 Danish mink farms. In North Denmark Region, 30% (324/1,092) of people found connected to mink farms tested SARS-CoV-2-PCR-positive and approximately 27% (95% confidence interval (CI): 25-30) of SARS-CoV-2-strains from humans in the community were mink-associated. Measures proved insufficient to mitigate spread. On 4 November, the government ordered culling of all Danish mink. Farmed mink constitute a potential virus reservoir challenging pandemic control.

Genomic selection in American mink (Neovison vison) using a single-step genomic best linear unbiased prediction model for size and quality traits graded on live mink.

Genomic selection relies on single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), which are often collected using medium-density SNP arrays. In mink, no such array is available; instead, genotyping by sequencing (GBS) can be used to generate marker information. Here, we evaluated the effect of genomic selection for mink using GBS. We compared the estimated breeding values (EBVs) from single-step genomic best linear unbiased prediction (SSGBLUP) models to the EBV from ordinary pedigree-based BLUP models. We analyzed seven size and quality traits from the live grading of brown mink. The phenotype data consisted of ~20,600 records for the seven traits from the mink born between 2013 and 2016. Genotype data included 2,103 mink born between 2010 and 2014, mostly breeding animals. In total, 28,336 SNP markers from 391 scaffolds were available for genomic prediction. The pedigree file included 29,212 mink. The predictive ability was assessed by the correlation (r) between progeny trait deviation (PTD) and EBV, and the regression of PTD on EBV, using 5-fold cross-validation. For each fold, one-fifth of animals born in 2014 formed the validation set. For all traits, the SSGBLUP model resulted in higher accuracies than the BLUP model. The average increase in accuracy was 15% (between 3% for fur clarity and 28% for body weight). For three traits (body weight, silky appearance of the under wool, and guard hair thickness), the difference in r between the two models was significant (P < 0.05). For all traits, the regression slopes of PTD on EBV from SSGBLUP models were closer to 1 than regression slopes from BLUP models, indicating SSGBLUP models resulted in less bias of EBV for selection candidates than the BLUP models. However, the regression coefficients did not differ significantly. In conclusion, the SSGBLUP model is superior to conventional BLUP model in the accurate selection of superior animals, and, thus, it would increase genetic gain in a selective breeding program. In addition, this study shows that GBS data work well in genomic prediction in mink, demonstrating the potential of GBS for genomic selection in livestock species.

Digestive tract nematode infections in non-native invasive American mink with the first molecular identification of Molineus patens.

Parasites may negatively affect hosts condition, especially when infection intensity is high. Species introduced to a new habitat are often less exposed to a parasite pressure but may accumulate parasites in time. American mink (Neovison vison) introduced to Europe, Asia, and South America is an example of such invasive species. We analysed nematode prevalence and digestive tract infection intensity in 796 feral American mink from Poland. The analyses were performed separately for stomach, duodenum, small intestine and large intestine. Parasite species identification was performed using molecular methods based on highly conserved nuclear 18S rRNA gene and supplemented with morphological analysis. In total, we collected 26,852 nematodes and 98.6% of them were isolated from mink stomachs. We found positive association between infection intensity in stomach and other parts of digestive tract. Nematode prevalence was estimated at 63.8% and average infection intensity per one American mink at 52.9 (range from 1 to 1118). If the stomach results were theoretically and intentionally omitted the prevalence was 5 times lower (12.7%) and infection intensity 14 times lower (3.7; range 1-50). We identified two nematode species in digestive tracts of American mink: Aonchotheca putorii and Molineus patens. The 18S rRNA gene sequence of Molineus patens has been reported for the first time. The results showed that Aonchotheca putorii is a dominating nematode in the invasive American mink and that it inhabits stomach intensively and preferably.

Validating an empiric sulfadiazine-trimethoprim dosage regimen for treatment of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus delphini infections in mink (Neovison vison).

Antimicrobial agents are used extensively off-label in mink, as almost no agents are registered for this animal species. Pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) data are required to determine antimicrobial dosages specifically targeting mink bacterial pathogens. The aims of this study were to assess, in a PKPD framework, the empirical dosage regimen for a combination of trimethoprim (TMP) and sulfadiazine (SDZ) in mink, and secondarily to produce data for future setting of clinical breakpoints. TMP and SDZ PK parameters were obtained experimentally in 22 minks following IV or oral administration of TMP/SDZ (30 mg/kg, i.e. 5 mg/kg TMP and 25 mg/kg SDZ). fAUC/MIC with a target value of 24 hr was selected as the PKPD index predictive of TMP/SDZ efficacy. Using a modeling approach, PKPD cutoffs for TMP and SDZ were determined as 0.062 and 16 mg/L, respectively. By incorporating an anticipated potentiation effect of SDZ on TMP against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus delphini, the PKPD cutoff of TMP was revised to 0.312 mg/L, which is above the tentative epidemiological cutoffs (TECOFF) for these species. The current empirical TMP/SDZ dosage regimen (30 mg/kg, PO, once daily) therefore appears adequate for treatment of wild-type E. coli and S. delphini infections in mink.

Aleutian mink disease: Spatio-temporal variation of prevalence and influence on the feral American mink.

Pathogens are one of the factors driving wildlife population dynamics. The spread of pathogens in wildlife is currently highly related to the transmission of pathogens from farmed animals, which has increased with the constant development of farming. Here, we analysed the spatio-temporal variation in the prevalence of Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) antibodies in feral American mink (Neovison vison) populations in Poland (1,153 individuals from nine sites) in relation to mink farming intensity. AMDV was detected in feral mink at all study sites and the prevalence ranged from 0.461 in the northern region to 0.826 in the western region. Mink males and adults were infected more often than females and subadults; the infection was also more frequent during the mink breeding season than during non-breeding. The prevalence of AMDV changed non-linearly in consecutive years and the peak of prevalence was every 3-4 years. The predicted AMDV prevalence was low at sites where the number of farmed mink was also low and increased linearly with the increase in the number of mink kept on farms. The predicted AMDV prevalence at sites with low mink farming intensity strongly varied between years, whereas at sites with high mink farming intensity, the predicted prevalence did not change significantly. AMDV infection affected the mink's body condition and caused an increase in the size of the spleen, liver and kidneys. This study shows that Aleutian mink disease strongly affects feral mink but the spatio-temporal variation of its prevalence is complex and partly related to the transmission of the virus from farmed mink to feral populations. The study highlights the complexity of AMDV circulation in feral mink populations and implicates a potential spillover of the virus to native species.

SARS-CoV-2 infection in farmed minks, associated zoonotic concerns, and importance of the One Health approach during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has now affected over 72.5 million people worldwide, with nearly 1.6 million deaths reported globally as of December 17, 2020. SARS-CoV-2 has been implicated to have originated from bats and pangolins, and its intermediate animal hosts are being investigated. Crossing of the species barrier and exhibition of zoonosis have been reported in SARS-CoV-2 in farm (minks), domesticated (cats and dogs), and wild animals (tigers, puma, and lions). Recently, the rapid spread of SARS-CoV-2 infection was reported in mink farms, which led to the death of a myriad minks. The clinical and pathological findings of SARS-CoV-2 infection and the rapid animal-to-animal transmission in minks are almost similar to the findings observed in patients with COVID-19. Additionally, the rapid virus transmission among minks and the associated mutations resulted in a new mink-associated variant that was identified in both minks and humans, thereby providing evidence of mink-to-human transmission of SARS-CoV-2. The new mink-associated SARS-CoV-2 variant with a possible reduced sensitivity to neutralizing antibodies poses serious risks and is expected to have a direct effect on the diagnostic techniques, therapeutics, and vaccines that are currently under development. This article highlights the current evidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in farmed minks, and provides an understanding of the pathogenesis of COVID-19 in minks and the associated zoonotic concerns of SARS-CoV-2 transmission from minks to humans with an emphasis on appropriate mitigation measures and on the necessity of adopting the One Health approach during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Functional genetic diversity of domestic and wild American mink (Neovison vison).

The release of domestic organisms to the wild threatens biodiversity because the introduction of domestic genes through interbreeding can negatively impact wild conspecifics via outbreeding depression. In North America, farmed American mink (Neovison vison) frequently escape captivity, yet the impact of these events on functional genetic diversity of wild mink populations is unclear. We characterized domestic and wild mink in Ontario at 17 trinucleotide microsatellites located in functional genes thought to be associated with traits affected by domestication. We found low functional genetic diversity in both mink types, as only four of 17 genes were variable, yet allele frequencies varied widely between captive and wild populations. To determine whether allele frequencies of wild populations were affected by geographic location, we performed redundancy analysis and spatial analysis of principal components on three polymorphic loci (AR, ATN1 and IGF-1). We found evidence to suggest domestic release events are affecting the functional genetic diversity of wild mink, as sPCA showed clear distinctions between wild individuals near mink farms and those located in areas without mink farms. This is further substantiated through RDA, where spatial location was associated with genetic variation of AR, ATN1 and IGF1.