Phenotypic Characteristics and Clonal Relationships of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia Isolates in Hospitalized Adults from a Private Center in Lima, Peru.

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia is an opportunistic pathogen, often associated with nosocomial infections. Ten S. maltophilia were isolated from clinical samples during the period January 2021 and June 2022. Eight (80%) patients had cancer as a background disease and 2 patients had coronavirus disease 2019. A fatal outcome was recorded in 4 cases (40% of patients). All the isolates were susceptible to minocycline and levofloxacin. Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole and ceftazidime resistance rates were 20% and 40% respectively. Eight different patterns were observed by Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis, only two isolates being clonally identical. The isolation of S. maltophilia in clinical settings requires the implementation of infection prevention measures.

High Genetic Similarity Among Salmonella Heidelberg Isolated from Poultry Farms, Wild Animals, Beef, Poultry and Pork Meat, and Humans in Brazil

Salmonellosis is an important gastrointestinal infection in humans and cause of foodborne outbreaks in the world. In this context, molecular characterization is essential to understand how the strains circulate. The aim of this study was to evaluate the genotypic distribution of S. Heidelberg according to the source of isolation. The genetic relatedness of the S. Heidelberg isolates was determined by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). The most prevalent pulsotypes of cluster A were BRJF6X01.006 (27/95 = 28,42%) related between 1995 and 2011 in broilers, poultry meat and poultry farms, meat product and human, and BRJF6X01.001 (21/95 = 22,10%) related between 2011 and 2017 in wild animals, broilers, poultry meat, poultry farms, meat product, animal feed, and pork meat. The pulsotype BRJF6X01.001 shows a high distribution in the environmental and productive chain. The degree of similarity between pulsotypes BRJF6X01.006 and BRJF6X01.001 is 88%. To ensure the safety of human and animal health, holistic approaches, including surveillance of Salmonella throughout the environment and in the production chain, together with control measures, are critical. As transmission of Salmonella from food producing animals to wildlife and to the environment is considered potential public health problem, information on the survival and persistence of Salmonella in the environment and in potential reservoirs is of considerable importance.(AU)

Genomic characterization and antimicrobial resistance profiles of Salmonella enterica serovar Infantis isolated from food, humans and veterinary-related sources in Brazil.

AIMS: To characterize the genetic relatedness, phenotypic and genotypic antimicrobial resistance and plasmid content of 80 Salmonella Infantis strains isolated from food, humans and veterinary sources from 2013 to 2018 in Brazil. METHODS AND RESULTS: Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and single-nucleotide polymorphism analysis showed major clusters containing 50% and 38.8% of the strains studied respectively. Multilocus sequence typing assigned all strains to ST32. Disk-diffusion revealed that 90% of the strains presented resistant or intermediate resistant profiles and 38.8% displayed multidrug resistance. Resistance genes for aminoglycosides (aac(6')-Iaa; aadA12; aph(3″-Ib; aph(6)-Id), ß-lactams (blaTEM-1 ; blaCTX-M-8 ; blaCMY-2 ), trimethoprim (dfrA8), tetracycline (tet(A)), amphenicols (floR), sulfonamide (sul2), efflux pumps (mdsA; mdsB), chromosomal point mutations in gyrB, parC, acrB and pmrA were detected. Strains harboured IncI, IncF, IncX, IncQ, IncN and IncR plasmids. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of a prevalent S. Infantis subtype in Brazil and the high antimicrobial resistance rates reinforced the potential hazard of this serovar for the public health and food safety fields. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This is the first study characterizing a large set of S. Infantis from Brazil by whole-genome sequencing, which provided a better local and global comprehension about the distribution and characteristics of this serovar of importance in the food, human and veterinary fields.

Contamination by antimicrobial-resistant enterobacteria isolated from cell phones and hands in a veterinary hospital.

Hospital infections are of great relevance in human and animal health, and fomites are important in the spread of pathogens in hospital units. The aim of this study was to investigate the frequency of enterobacteria in the operating room of a veterinary hospital, the potential cross-contamination of samples, and to characterise the susceptibility profile of the isolates to antimicrobials. Sixty-five samples were collected from five different surgical procedures. These samples came from the hands and cell phones of the surgical team and pet owners, operating tables, and patients. Species detection was performed through polymerase chain reaction, genetic diversity by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), and susceptibility to antimicrobials through an antibiogram. Escherichia coli and Proteus mirabilis isolates were obtained from eight samples, from the hands of the anaesthesiologist, the pet owner, and the surgeon; the surgeon's, the nurse's and the anaesthesiologist's cell phones, and two surgical tables. Furthermore, PFGE showed high genetic diversity among the isolates, which showed multidrug resistance. The identification of multidrug-resistant E. coli and P. mirabilis on cell phones of the surgical team is a major concern and, although no direct correlation was found, the isolation of these bacteria inside the clean area of the operating room shows the possibility of nosocomial transmission from cell phones to susceptible patients.

Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Diversity of Campylobacter spp. Isolated from Broiler Chicken at Three Levels of the Poultry Production Chain in Costa Rica.

ABSTRACT: Campylobacter spp. are considered the most common bacterial cause of human gastroenteritis, one of the four main causes of diarrheal disease worldwide, and they are one of the main foodborne pathogens causing hospitalizations and deaths. Here, 148 strains of Campylobacter spp. isolated from poultry at farms, processing plants, and retail stores in Costa Rica were examined for resistance to six antibiotics. An agar dilution test was used to determine the MIC and susceptibility profiles against doxycycline, ciprofloxacin, nalidixic acid, enrofloxacin, chloramphenicol, and erythromycin. In addition, a pulsed-field gel electrophoresis analysis was carried out to determine the genotype relatedness of a representative subset of the isolates. Approximately 136 (92%) of the 148 analyzed isolates showed resistance to the tested drugs. Nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin, and enrofloxacin were the antibiotics for which resistance occurred most frequently (91.2, 85.8, and 85.8%, respectively), followed by doxycycline (25.0%), chloramphenicol (5.4%), and erythromycin (2.7%). The profile conferring only resistance to quinolones was the most frequently found, and only 2.0% of the isolates showed resistance to quinolones and macrolides simultaneously. Results showed a high frequency of resistant Campylobacter spp. strains and evidenced the distribution, selection, and circulation of resistant strains along the poultry chain from farms to consumers. Cross-contamination and resistance seem to play important roles in the dissemination of these strains at specific points of the poultry chain, even when control measures are being taken. The establishment of effective surveillance and control strategies represents an essential tool for foodborne diseases mitigation. The rational use of antibiotics, especially those still showing efficacy, should be a priority in both human and veterinary medicine to contain the progress of this phenomenon and its consequences.

Multidrug-Resistant and Extended-Spectrum ß-Lactamase-Producing Salmonella enterica Serotype Heidelberg Is Widespread in a Poultry Processing Facility in Southern Brazil.

ABSTRACT: This study was conducted to characterize the distribution of Salmonella isolates in a poultry processing facility and to identify their antibiotic resistance profiles. Salmonella enterica was detected in 146 samples (66.7%), and 125 isolates were identified as Salmonella Heidelberg (n = 123), Salmonella Abony (n = 1), and Salmonella O:4,5 (n = 1). Salmonella Heidelberg isolates were subjected to XbaI macrorestriction analysis and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. The 66 pulsotypes obtained were grouped into four major clusters, indicating cross-contamination and persistence of this serotype in the processing facility. Selected S. enterica isolates were characterized by their antibiotic resistance, and most (n = 122, 97.6%) were multidrug resistant. Resistance to third-generation cephalosporins ceftazidime (84 isolates, 67.2%) and cefotaxime and ceftriaxone (91 isolates, 72.8%) was particularly prevalent. Production of extended-spectrum ß-lactamases (ESBL) was identified in 24 isolates (19.2%), and ESBL-producing isolates were resistant to at least eight antibiotics. This study revealed the high prevalence of Salmonella Heidelberg in the poultry chain, providing insight into the ecology of this pathogen in this facility. The high prevalence of multidrug-resistant S. enterica is a concern due to the potential consequences for public health.

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli isolated from pasteurized dairy products from Bahia, Brazil.

The presence of pathogenic Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) in dairy products represents a public health concern because of its ability to produce the toxins Stx1 and Stx2, which cause intestinal diseases. Monitoring the stages of milk production and checking dairy products for contamination are crucial steps to ensure dairy safety. This study aimed to report the occurrence of thermotolerant coliforms, E. coli, and STEC strains in pasteurized dairy products and to evaluate the antibiotic resistance profiles, serotypes, and characterizations of the STEC isolates by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. We obtained a total of 138 pasteurized dairy products from 15 processing plants in Bahia, Brazil, to examine coliforms, E. coli, and STEC strains. We found that 43% of samples (59/138) contained thermotolerant coliforms, and 30% (42/138) did not comply with Brazilian regulations. Overall, 6% (9/138) were positive for E. coli and 4% (5/138) were positive for STEC. We recovered 9 STEC isolates from pasteurized cream (2/9), Minas Padrão cheese (2/9), Minas Frescal cheese (4/9), and ricotta (1/9). All isolates were stx2-positive, and 2 were eae-positive. All isolates were negative for the "big 6" STEC serogroups, belonging instead to serotypes ONT:HNT, ONT:H12, O148:H-, OR:H40, OR:HNT, and O148:HNT. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis revealed 100% genetic similarity among 3 isolates from 2 different samples produced in the same production facility, which may suggest cross-contamination. As well, we found isolates that were 98% similar but in samples produced in different production facilities, suggesting a mutual source of contamination or a circulating strain. Two STEC strains exhibited resistance to streptomycin. Although the isolates presented a low resistance profile and no strain belonged to the "big 6" pathogenic group, the circulation of stx2-positive STEC strains in ready-to-eat products highlights the importance of epidemiological surveillance inside the Brazilian dairy chain.

Molecular characterization and antimicrobial resistance profiles of Salmonella Heidelberg isolates from poultry.

In the last 10 years, Salmonella Heidelberg has been extensively isolated from poultry in several countries. In this context, molecular characterization is essential to understand whether the strains have entered the farms from a single or several sources. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the genetic relationship and antimicrobial susceptibility of S. Heidelberg strains isolated between 2011 and 2012 from broiler farms belonging to three integrated poultry companies located in Argentina. The genetic relatedness of the S. Heidelberg isolates was determined by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), and resistance to 21 antimicrobials was determined by the disc diffusion method. The isolates were assigned to four PFGE patterns. Most of the strains showed 100% similarity and belonged to the same integrated poultry company. This PFGE pattern was also prevalent in S. Heidelberg strains isolated from humans in several provinces of Argentina, which suggests an epidemiological association between human and poultry strains. All the isolates were classified as multidrug-resistant (MDR), and no clear relationship was observed between PFGE and resistance patterns. S. Heidelberg strains may circulate among farms from the same integrated company due to common sources of contamination. To guarantee the safety of the poultry product for the consumers, holistic approaches including surveillance of Salmonella throughout the production chain together with control measures are crucial.

Genetic diversity assessed using PFGE, MLP and MLST in Candida spp. candidemia isolates obtained from a Brazilian hospital.

Candida spp. are the main causative agents of invasive fungal infections in immunocompromised patients. Candidemia has attributable mortality rates of 15 to 35% and increases hospitalisation time and costs, thus making this disease a public health concern. This study aimed to use pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), microsatellite length polymorphism (MLP) and multilocus sequence typing (MLST) to analyse the genetic relationships among 65 Candida spp. bloodstream isolates, including 35 Candida albicans, 15 Candida glabrata and 15 Candida tropicalis isolates, all of which were obtained from patients in a Brazilian hospital. Moreover, patient clinical data were assessed. All techniques resulted in high discriminatory indexes. C. albicans and C. tropicalis isolates showed high genetic variability, while C. glabrata isolates had relatively low genetic variability. Moreover, a cluster of C. glabrata isolates was identified in a hospital unit. New MLST sequence types, diploid sequence types and alleles are described. Relationships were not observed between the molecular typing results and clinical characteristics. The molecular typing of clinical strains increases our understanding of candidemia epidemiology and promotes the development of strategies that can reduce the incidence of this disease. Moreover, this study is the first to combine these techniques to genotype these three species in Brazil.

High rates of Salmonella contamination in raw kibbe from commercial establishments: predominance of Salmonella Give.

Salmonella is one of the major causes of gastroenteritis worldwide in both humans and animals and one of the main agents involved in foodborne disease outbreaks. In this study, 70 raw kibbe samples from different commercial establishments were analyzed for Salmonella spp. The isolates were seroyped and tested for susceptibility to antimicrobial agents. Pulsed-field Gel Electrophoresis was carried out following the standard protocol of the PulseNet network. Fifteen (21.4%) samples were contaminated with Salmonella and S. Give was the prevalent serotype (46.7%). Similarity of 96.3% was observed among the S. Give isolates (n = 7), which indicates the possible spread of the same clone in the analyzed commercial establishments. S. Rissen and S. Typhimurium showed antimicrobial resistance. The detection of a significant percentage of contamination in raw kibbe and of the resistant strains indicates the risk that the consumption of this dish may represent.

Genetic Similarities of Escherichia Coli Isolated from Different Substrates of the Broiler Production Chain

Brazil is the largest exporter of chicken meat and poultry farming is one of the most important productive segments, despite major losses due to the bacterium Escherichia coli, which is also a zoonotic microorganism. The objetive of this study was to isolate E. coli and to evaluate its transmissibility potential from the field to chicken meat using the Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE) technique. Environmental samples (poultry litter, soil and water) were collected from broiler farms located in the South of Brazil where the majority of the Brazilian poultry production occurs. In addition, chicken meat (gizzard, heart, drumette and tulip) samples were collected from local supermarkets. As results, 47.36% of the samples were positives for E. coli. Furthermore, 10 pairs of clones of E. coli were found always in the same substrate (two water-water pairs; three soil-soil pairs and five meat-meat pairs) using PFGE. These findings suggest that certain strains of E. coli may have habitat preferences, making the transfer from one substrate type to another more difficult to occur. Moreover, since no clones were found between environmental samples and chicken meat, it is possible to imply a low risk of E. coli transmissibility throughout the chicken meat production chain.(AU)

Genetic Similarities of Escherichia Coli Isolated from Different Substrates of the Broiler Production Chain

Brazil is the largest exporter of chicken meat and poultry farming is one of the most important productive segments, despite major losses due to the bacterium Escherichia coli, which is also a zoonotic microorganism. The objetive of this study was to isolate E. coli and to evaluate its transmissibility potential from the field to chicken meat using the Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE) technique. Environmental samples (poultry litter, soil and water) were collected from broiler farms located in the South of Brazil where the majority of the Brazilian poultry production occurs. In addition, chicken meat (gizzard, heart, drumette and tulip) samples were collected from local supermarkets. As results, 47.36% of the samples were positives for E. coli. Furthermore, 10 pairs of clones of E. coli were found always in the same substrate (two water-water pairs; three soil-soil pairs and five meat-meat pairs) using PFGE. These findings suggest that certain strains of E. coli may have habitat preferences, making the transfer from one substrate type to another more difficult to occur. Moreover, since no clones were found between environmental samples and chicken meat, it is possible to imply a low risk of E. coli transmissibility throughout the chicken meat production chain.

Hypervirulent Klebsiella pneumoniae as Unexpected Cause of Fatal Outbreak in Captive Marmosets, Brazil.

After the sudden death of captive marmosets in São Paulo, Brazil, we conducted a histologic and microbiologic study. We found hyperacute septicemia caused by hypermucoviscous sequence type 86 K2 Klebsiella pneumoniae. We implemented prophylactic antimicrobial therapy, selected dedicated staff for marmoset interactions, and sanitized the animals' fruit to successfully control this outbreak.

Prevalence, Distribution, and Diversity of Salmonella Strains Isolated From a Subtropical Lake.

This study investigated the prevalence, serovar distribution, antimicrobial resistance, and pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) typing of Salmonella enterica isolated from Lake Zapotlán, Jalisco, Mexico. Additionally, the association of the presence of Salmonella with physicochemical and environmental parameters was analyzed using Pearson correlation analysis and principal component analysis (PCA). Salmonella spp. were identified in 19 of 63 (30.15%) samples. The prevalence of Salmonella was positively correlated with air temperature, electrical conductivity, pH, and dissolved oxygen and negatively correlated with relative humidity, water temperature, turbidity, and precipitation. The predominant serotype identified was Agona (68.48%), followed by Weltevreden (5.26%), Typhimurium (5.26%), and serogroup B (21.05%). Overall, the highest detected antimicrobial resistance was toward colistin (73.68%), followed by sulfamethoxazole (63.15%), tetracycline (57.89%), nalidixic acid (52.63%), and trimethoprim (52.63%). All Salmonella strains were genetically diverse, with a total of 11 XbaI and four BlnI profiles on PFGE. The use of these two enzymes allowed differentiate strains of Salmonella of the same serotype. The results obtained in this study contribute to a better understanding of the Salmonella spp. ecology in an endorheic subtropical lake and provide information for decision makers to propose and implement effective strategies to control point and non-point sources of pathogen contamination.

Prevalence, genotypic diversity and detection of virulence genes in thermotolerant Campylobacter at different stages of the poultry meat supply chain.

Thermotolerant Campylobacter is the leading bacterial cause of foodborne illness in humans worldwide. The objectives of this study were to estimate prevalence and to identify and characterize potential sources of thermotolerant Campylobacter contamination in broilers on farms and at the slaughterhouse; to evaluate the clonal relationship among thermotolerant Campylobacter isolates from different stages of the broiler meat supply chain, and to analyze the presence of virulence genes in different sources of thermotolerant Campylobacter. A total of 1210 samples were collected from three broiler meat supply chains in Santa Fe, Argentina. At the farms, the sampling collection included broilers one week prior to slaughter, wild-living birds, domestic dogs, wild rodents, farm workers' boots, litter, feed, drinking water, flies, and darkling beetles (Alphitobius diaperinus). At the slaughtering line, the samples taken were from the evisceration zone (broiler cecum, working surfaces, evisceration knives and workers' hands), from the chiller zone (surfaces and direct supply water) and from the packing zone (work surfaces, workers' hands and broiler carcasses). The samples taken along each supply chain were in the same batch. The isolates obtained were identified to the species level (C. jejuni and C. coli) by multiplex PCR and were analyzed using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis to compare different profiles according to the source. Finally, the presence of 11 virulence genes was examined (cadF, cdtA, cdtB, cdtC, ciaB, flaA, flhA, iam, wlaN, virB11, racR). From 254 isolates, 128 (50.4%) were Campylobacter jejuni and 126 (49.6%) Campylobacter coli. C. jejuni was the species most prevalent in farm and C. coli the species most prevalent at the slaughterhouse. We detected thermotolerant Campylobacter in samples of wild birds, darkling beetles, farm workers' boots, flies and litter. At the slaughterhouse, the prevalence varied along the process line. By analyzing PFGE results, C. jejuni showed 21 profiles with three predominant genotypes, while C. coli showed 14 profiles with four predominant genotypes. A high genotype diversity was found; however, relationships between isolates from different stages of the broiler meat chain, between broiler and potential sources of thermotolerant Campylobacter contamination and between strains in the farm and in the slaughterhouse were detected. Furthermore, there was evidence of cross-contamination at the slaughterhouse. FlaA, flhA genes were detected in all strains, and the third most prevalent virulence gene was cadF. Only those strains obtained from flies, wild-living birds and broiler carcass samples harbored 10 of 11 pathogenic genes. The prevalence of some pathogenic genes between C. jejuni and C. coli was different. This evidence should contribute the scientific basis to implement risk management measures in public health.

Genotypic diversity of Salmonella ser. Abortusequi isolates from Argentina.

BACKGROUND: Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Abortusequi (S. Abortusequi) is a serotype restricted to equines, which produces abortion outbreaks. Nowadays the disease is being reported in different countries including Argentina thus generating an important impact in the equine industry. Molecular characterization of the 95 kb virulence plasmid and the spvC gene of S. Abortusequi demonstrated their importance in the pathogenicity of the serotype. In the last decades, high clonality of S. Abortusequi was identified in Japan, Mongolia and Croatia. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this work was to characterize S. Abortusequi isolates obtained in Argentina between 2011 and 2016 by virulence-gene profiling and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. STUDY DESIGN: Case report. METHODS: S. Abortusequi isolates were studied by virulence-gene profiling and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. RESULTS: Four virulence profiles and nine pulsed-field gel electrophoresis pulsotypes were identified among the 27 isolates included in the study. Different strains were found in the same outbreak and/or farm suggesting the presence of different sources of infection or mutation of isolates. MAIN LIMITATIONS: The number of related and nonrelated strains. More isolates may be necessary for a more intensive study. CONCLUSIONS: Most strains presented the same virulence profile, being positive for all the studied genes except gipA and sopE1, which are involved in intestinal virulence. Only few isolates showed different results in the same outbreak or farm. Unlike other studies, our results demonstrate a considerable diversity of S. Abortusequi pulsed-field gel electrophoresis pulsotypes, which suggests that different sources of infection may be involved within the same outbreak.

openPFGE: An open source and low cost pulsed-field gel electrophoresis equipment.

DNA electrophoresis is a fundamental technique in molecular biology that allows the separation of DNA molecules up to ~50 Kbp. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis [PFGE] is a variation of the conventional DNA electrophoresis technique that allows the separation of very large DNA molecules up to ~10 Mbp. PFGE equipment is very expensive and it becomes an access barrier to many laboratories. Also, just a few privative designs of the equipment are available and it becomes difficult for the community to improve or customize their functioning. Here, we provide an open source PFGE equipment capable of the separation of DNA molecules up to, at least, ~2 Mbp and at low cost: USD$850, about 3% of the price of typical commercial equipment.

Molecular typing of Campylobacter jejuni strains: comparison among four different techniques.

This study compared the ability of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), flaA small variable region (SVR) sequencing, analysis of the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats locus by high resolution melting analysis (CRISPR-HRMA), and multilocus sequence typing (MLST) for typing 111 Campylobacter jejuni strains isolated from diverse sources during 20 years in Brazil. For this, we used previous results obtained by PFGE and flaA-SVR sequencing from our research group and performed CRISPR-HRMA and MLST typing for the first time. Furthermore, the discrimination index (DI) of each method was accessed. The DI for PFGE, flaA-SVR sequencing, CRISPR-HRMA, and MLST was 0.980, 0.932, 0.868, and 0.931, respectively. By PFGE and flaA-SVR sequencing, some strains from clinical and non-clinical sources and from humans and animals presented ≥ 80% similarity. Similarly, some strains from different origins presented the same ST and CRISPR-HRMA types. In conclusion, despite the different DI values, all assays provided the same epidemiological information suggesting that a potential transmission may have occurred between C. jejuni from clinical and non-clinical sources and from animals and humans in Brazil. Furthermore it was demonstrated the suitability of PFGE that should be used preferably together with MLST and/or flaA-SVR sequencing for typing C. jejuni strains.

Staphylococcus aureus in tonsils of patients with recurrent tonsillitis: prevalence, susceptibility profile, and genotypic characterization.

INTRODUCTION: Bacterial tonsillitis is an upper respiratory tract infection that occurs primarily in children and adolescents. Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most frequent pathogens in the etiology of tonsillitis and its relevance is due to its antimicrobial resistance and persistence in the internal tissues of the tonsils. Tonsillectomy is indicated in cases of recurrent tonsillitis after several failures of antibiotic therapy. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In this study we evaluated 123 surgically removed tonsils from patients who had history of recurrent tonsillitis. The tonsils were submitted to microbiological analysis for detection of S. aureus. The isolates were identified by PCR for femA gene. Antimicrobial susceptibility of the isolates was determined by disk diffusion tests. All isolates were submitted to PCR to detect mecA and Panton-Valentine leucocidin (PVL) genes. The genetic similarity among all isolates was determined by pulsed field gel electrophoresis. RESULTS: Sixty-one S. aureus isolates were obtained from 50 patients (40.7%) with mean age of 11.7 years. The isolates showed high level resistance to penicillin (83.6%), 9.8% had inducible MLSb phenotype, and 18.0% were considered multidrug resistant (MDR). mecA gene was detected in two isolates and the gene coding for PVL was identified in one isolate. The genetic similarity analysis showed high diversity among the isolates. More than one genetically different isolate was identified from the same patient, and identical isolates were obtained from different patients. CONCLUSIONS: MDR isolates colonizing tonsils even without infection, demonstrate persistence of the bacterium and possibility of antimicrobial resistance dissemination and recurrence of infection. A specific clone in patients colonized by S. aureus was not demonstrated.

The population structure of Ochrobactrum isolated from entomopathogenic nematodes indicates interactions with the symbiotic system.

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) form specific mutualistic associations with bioluminescent enterobacteria. In Heterorhabditidis indica, Ochrobactrum spp. was identified beside the symbiont Photorhabdus luminescens but its involvement in the symbiotic association in the EPNs remains unclear. This study describe the population structure and the diversity in Ochrobactrum natural populations isolated from EPNs in the Caribbean basin in order to question the existence of EPN-specialized clones and to gain a better insight into Ochrobactrum-EPNs relationships. EPN-associated Ochrobactrum and Photorhabdus strains were characterized by multi-locus sequence typing, Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis fingerprinting and phenotypic traits. Population study showed the absence of EPN-specialized clones in O. intermedium and O. anthropi but suggested the success of some particular lineages. A low level of genetic and genomic diversification of Ochrobactrum isolated from the natural population of Caribbean nematodes was observed comparatively to the diversity of human-associated Ochrobactrum strains. Correspondences between Ochrobactrum and P. luminescens PFGE clusters have been observed, particularly in the case of nematodes from Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico. O. intermedium and O. anthropi associated to EPNs formed less biofilm than human-associated strains. These results evoke interactions between Ochrobactrum and the EPN symbiotic system rather than transient contamination. The main hypothesis to investigate is a toxic/antitoxic relationship because of the ability of Ochrobactrum to resist to antimicrobial and toxic compounds produced by Photorhabdus.