Corrigendum: Identifying stuttering in Arabic speakers who stutter: development of a non-word repetition task and preliminary results.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fped.2022.750126.].

Visual Attention to Semantic and Orthographic Associations in Fluent Aphasia: Evidence from Eye-Tracking.

We examined the allocation of visual attention in an association task by both neurotypical participants (n = 11) and adults with fluent aphasia (n = 12). Participants were presented with a picture (e.g., a basket) followed by a semantically related association (i.e., "strawberry") and an orthographically related association (i.e., "b," the first letter of "basket"). An eye tracker recorded their eye movements for three areas of interest (AOI): the picture, the semantic associate, and the orthographic associate, over 1396 observations. Results showed that both neurotypical participants and participants with aphasia looked longer at the semantic associate than at the picture, and this difference was more pronounced for neurotypicals than for people with aphasia (PWA). Neurotypicals also looked longer than the PWA group at the orthographic associate than at the prior picture. Regarding eye fixation counts, both participant groups looked more frequently at the semantic associate than at either the picture or the orthographic associate. Notably, this pattern was more pronounced among neurotypical participants than PWA. Our findings emphasize the importance of semantic associations in fluent aphasia and suggest a potential rehabilitative approach in speech and language therapy.

Verbal retrieval deficits due to traumatic brain injury are associated with changes in event related potentials during a Go-NoGo task.

OBJECTIVE: Verbal retrieval (VR) deficits often occur after traumatic brain injury (TBI), but the mechanisms remain unclear. We examined how event-related potentials (ERPs) during a Go-NoGo task were associated with VR deficits. METHODS: Sixty veterans with a history of TBI underwent a neuropsychological battery and a Go-NoGo task with concurrent EEG recording. We compared task performance and ERP measures (N2, P3) between those with and those without persistent injury-related VR deficits. We then used generalized linear modeling to examine the relationship between ERP measures and scores on measures of executive function and processing speed. RESULTS: Go-NoGo task performance was comparable between the groups. Those with VR deficits had larger N2 amplitude in NoGo than in Go conditions. In participants with VR deficits, larger NoGo N2/P3 amplitude predicted faster processing speed. Furthermore, larger P3 amplitude and shorter P3 latency of the difference wave (NoGo - Go) predicted faster processing speed in those with VR deficits. CONCLUSIONS: Despite no difference in Go-NoGo task performance, ERP amplitude and latency measures associated with cognitive control during Go-NoGo distinguished TBI individuals with VR deficits from those without. SIGNIFICANCE: This study furthers our understanding of VR deficits in TBI and implicates potential application of ERP measures in monitoring and treating such deficits.

A modified neural circuit framework for semantic memory retrieval with implications for circuit modulation to treat verbal retrieval deficits.

Word finding difficulty is a frequent complaint in older age and disease states, but treatment options are lacking for such verbal retrieval deficits. Better understanding of the neurophysiological and neuroanatomical basis of verbal retrieval function may inform effective interventions. In this article, we review the current evidence of a neural retrieval circuit central to verbal production, including words and semantic memory, that involves the pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA), striatum (particularly caudate nucleus), and thalamus. We aim to offer a modified neural circuit framework expanded upon a memory retrieval model proposed in 2013 by Hart et al., as evidence from electrophysiological, functional brain imaging, and noninvasive electrical brain stimulation studies have provided additional pieces of information that converge on a shared neural circuit for retrieval of memory and words. We propose that both the left inferior frontal gyrus and fronto-polar regions should be included in the expanded circuit. All these regions have their respective functional roles during verbal retrieval, such as selection and inhibition during search, initiation and termination of search, maintenance of co-activation across cortical regions, as well as final activation of the retrieved information. We will also highlight the structural connectivity from and to the pre-SMA (e.g., frontal aslant tract and fronto-striatal tract) that facilitates communication between the regions within this circuit. Finally, we will discuss how this circuit and its correlated activity may be affected by disease states and how this circuit may serve as a novel target engagement for neuromodulatory treatment of verbal retrieval deficits.

Cognitive components of aging-related increase in word-finding difficulty.

Word-finding difficulty (WFD) is a common cognitive complaint in aging, manifesting both in natural speech and in controlled laboratory tests. Various theories of cognitive aging have addressed WFD, and understanding its underlying mechanisms can help to clarify whether it has diagnostic value for neurodegenerative disease. Two influential "information-universal" theories attribute it to rather broad changes in cognition. The processing speed theory posits a general slowdown of all cognitive processes, while the inhibitory deficit hypothesis (IDH) predicts a specific problem in suppressing irrelevant information. One "information specific" theory of language production, the transmission deficit hypothesis (TDH), posits a breakdown in retrieval of phonological word forms from a corresponding lemma. To adjudicate between these accounts, we administered an online gamified covert naming task featuring picture-word interference (PWI), previously validated to elicit similar semantic interference and phonological facilitation effects as overt naming tasks. 125 healthy adults aged 18 to 85 completed the task, along with a battery of executive function tasks and a naturalistic speech sample to quantify WFD in connected speech. PWI effects provided strong support for the TDH but limited support for IDH, in that semantic interference increased and phonological facilitation decreased across the lifespan. However, neither of these effects on single-word retrieval associated with WFD measured in connected speech. Rather, overall reaction time for word retrieval (controlling for psychomotor slowing) was the best predictor of spontaneous WFD and executive function decline, suggesting processing speed as the key factor, and that verbal reaction time may be an important clinical measure.

Preoperative word-finding difficulties in children with posterior fossa tumours: a European cross-sectional study.

PURPOSE: Posterior fossa tumour surgery in children entails a high risk for severe speech and language impairments, but few studies have investigated the effect of the tumour on language prior to surgery. The current crosslinguistic study addresses this gap. We investigated the prevalence of preoperative word-finding difficulties, examined associations with medical and demographic characteristics, and analysed lexical errors. METHODS: We included 148 children aged 5-17 years with a posterior fossa tumour. Word-finding ability was assessed by means of a picture-naming test, Wordrace, and difficulties in accuracy and speed were identified by cut-off values. A norm-based subanalysis evaluated performance in a Swedish subsample. We compared the demographic and medical characteristics of children with slow, inaccurate, or combined slow and inaccurate word finding to the characteristics of children without word-finding difficulties and conducted a lexical error analysis. RESULTS: Thirty-seven percent (n = 55) presented with slow word finding, 24% (n = 35) with inaccurate word finding, and 16% (n = 23) with both slow and inaccurate word finding. Children with posterior fossa tumours were twice as slow as children in the norming sample. Right-hemisphere and brainstem location posed a higher risk for preoperative word-finding difficulties, relative to left-hemisphere location, and difficulties were more prevalent in boys than in girls. The most frequent errors were lack of response and semantically related sideordinated words. CONCLUSION: Word-finding difficulties are frequent in children with posterior fossa tumours, especially in boys and in children with right-hemisphere and brainstem tumours. Errors resemble those observed in typical development and children with word-finding difficulties.

Complementary auditory and Visual Naming Tests: Revised and updated for ages 16-55 years.

Objective: Historically, naming has been assessed with visual object naming; however, we have found that auditory description naming significantly enhances lateralization and localization of dysfunction. We previously published auditory naming (ANT) and complementary Visual Naming Tests (VNT) for young adults, and recently developed these measures for children (ages 6-15 years) and older adults (ages 56-100 years). Here, we update the original stimuli and more rigorously norm the tests for ages 16-55, addressing prior limitations. Methods: Test stimuli were selected based on item characteristics and preliminary screening, eliminating those with less than 90% name agreement. A sample of 178 healthy individuals ages 16-55 years were administered the updated ANT and VNT, and other standardized measures, either in person (n = 114) or via telehealth (n = 64). Results: With no effect of age, yet a significant influence of education, education-based normative data are provided for accuracy, tips-of-the-tongue (i.e. delayed, accurate responses plus correct responses following phonemic cueing), and an aggregate Summary Score. Internal and test-retest reliability coefficients were reasonable (.67-.90). Conclusions: These measures provide updated and improved naming assessment for ages 16-55 years, contributing to a contiguous set of naming tests for school-aged children through elderly adults. Compared to the original ANT and VNT, these measures were designed to have stimuli longevity, and offer reduced item burden and evidence-based recommendations for performance measures with the greatest clinical sensitivity. The addition of these measures enables continuity in assessment across the age span, facilitating longitudinal assessment related to disease progression or therapeutic intervention.

Identifying the Active Ingredients of a Computerized Speech and Language Therapy Intervention for Poststroke Aphasia: Multiple Methods Investigation Alongside a Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Aphasia is a communication disorder affecting more than one-third of stroke survivors. Computerized Speech and Language Therapy (CSLT) is a complex intervention requiring computer software, speech and language therapists, volunteers, or therapy assistants, as well as self-managed practice from the person with aphasia. CSLT was found to improve word finding, a common symptom of aphasia, in a multicenter randomized controlled trial (Clinical and Cost Effectiveness of Computer Treatment for Aphasia Post Stroke [Big CACTUS]). OBJECTIVE: This study provides a detailed description of the CSLT intervention delivered in the Big CACTUS trial and identified the active ingredients of the intervention directly associated with improved word finding for people with aphasia. METHODS: We conducted a multiple methods study within the context of a randomized controlled trial. In study 1, qualitative interviews explored key informants' understanding of the CSLT intervention, how the components interacted, and how they could be measured. Qualitative data were transcribed verbatim and analyzed thematically. Qualitative findings informed the process measures collected as part of a process evaluation of the CSLT intervention delivered in the Big CACTUS trial. In study 2, quantitative analyses explored the relationship between intervention process measures (length of computer therapy access; therapists' knowledge of CSLT; degree of rationale for CSLT tailoring; and time spent using the software to practice cued confrontation naming, noncued naming, and using words in functional sentences) and change in word-finding ability over a 6-month intervention period. RESULTS: Qualitative interviews were conducted with 7 CSLT approach experts. Thematic analysis identified four overarching components of the CSLT approach: (1) the StepByStep software (version 5; Steps Consulting Ltd), (2) therapy setup: tailoring and personalizing, (3) regular independent practice, and (4) support and monitoring. Quantitative analyses included process and outcome data from 83 participants randomized to the intervention arm of the Big CACTUS trial. The process measures found to be directly associated with improved word-finding ability were therapists providing a thorough rationale for tailoring the computerized therapy exercises and the amount of time the person with aphasia spent using the computer software to practice using words in functional sentences. CONCLUSIONS: The qualitative exploration of the CSLT approach provided a detailed description of the components, theories, and mechanisms underpinning the intervention and facilitated the identification of process measures to be collected in the Big CACTUS trial. Quantitative analysis furthered our understanding of which components of the intervention are associated with clinical improvement. To optimize the benefits of using the CSLT approach for word finding, therapists are advised to pay particular attention to the active ingredients of the intervention: tailoring the therapy exercises based on the individual's specific language difficulties and encouraging people with aphasia to practice the exercises focused on saying words in functional sentences. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN Registry ISRCTN68798818; https://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN68798818.

Interictal epileptiform discharges contribute to word-finding difficulty in epilepsy through multiple cognitive mechanisms.

OBJECTIVE: Cognitive impairment often impacts quality of life in epilepsy even if seizures are controlled. Word-finding difficulty is particularly prevalent and often attributed to etiological (static, baseline) circuit alterations. We sought to determine whether interictal discharges convey significant superimposed contributions to word-finding difficulty in patients, and if so, through which cognitive mechanism(s). METHODS: Twenty-three patients undergoing intracranial monitoring for drug-resistant epilepsy participated in multiple tasks involving word production (auditory naming, short-term verbal free recall, repetition) to probe word-finding difficulty across different cognitive domains. We compared behavioral performance between trials with versus without interictal discharges across six major brain areas and adjusted for intersubject differences using mixed-effects models. We also evaluated for subjective word-finding difficulties through retrospective chart review. RESULTS: Subjective word-finding difficulty was reported by the majority (79%) of studied patients preoperatively. During intracranial recordings, interictal epileptiform discharges (IEDs) in the medial temporal lobe were associated with long-term lexicosemantic memory impairments as indexed by auditory naming (p = .009), in addition to their established impact on short-term verbal memory as indexed by free recall (p = .004). Interictal discharges involving the lateral temporal cortex and lateral frontal cortex were associated with delayed reaction time in the auditory naming task (p = .016 and p = .018), as well as phonological working memory impairments as indexed by repetition reaction time (p = .002). Effects of IEDs across anatomical regions were strongly dependent on their precise timing within the task. SIGNIFICANCE: IEDs appear to act through multiple cognitive mechanisms to form a convergent basis for the debilitating clinical word-finding difficulty reported by patients with epilepsy. This was particularly notable for medial temporal spikes, which are quite common in adult focal epilepsy. In parallel with the treatment of seizures, the modulation of interictal discharges through emerging pharmacological means and neurostimulation approaches may be an opportunity to help address devastating memory and language impairments in epilepsy.

Verbal ability in postmenopausal women in relation to age, cognitive and reproductive factors.

Word-finding difficulties have been associated with age and, in women, lowered sex hormone levels following menopause. However, there is limited understanding of the ways that specific aspects of word-finding are shaped by women's age, reproductive histories, and background factors such as education. The current study investigated the effects of age, cognitive and reproductive factors on word-finding abilities in 53 healthy postmenopausal women aged 48-79. A questionnaire was used to gather demographic information and reproductive history. A battery of verbal fluency, continuous series, and naming tasks was designed to assess word-finding across different sensory modalities and cognitive demands. Category and letter fluency were quantified as total number of correct words produced on each task. For continuous series, switch rates and switch costs were computed. For the naming tasks, accuracy and latency measures were used. There were three key findings. Firstly, there was a consistent positive association between education and all word-finding measures, i.e., verbal fluency, continuous series, and naming. Secondly, age-related declines were seen on tasks heavily dependent on working memory such as the continuous series task. Thirdly, reproductive factors across the lifespan such as age at menarche and reproductive years showed subtle effects on naming abilities, but not on verbal fluency or continuous series. The results highlight that word-finding abilities in healthy postmenopausal women are shaped by factors associated with their early years (education, age at menarche) and later adult life (age, reproductive years). The study also distinguished between the more global effects of education, and the more task-specific associations with age and reproductive variables, on verbal task performance after menopause.

Anomia in left hemisphere stroke, multiple sclerosis and Parkinson's disease - a comparative study.

PURPOSE: To explore quantitative and qualitative features of anomia in participants with left-hemisphere stroke, Parkinson's disease, or multiple sclerosis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This descriptive cross-sectional study compares signs of anomia within and across participants (n = 87), divided into four groups; moderate to severe anomia after stroke (MSAS, n = 19), mild anomia after stroke (MAS, n = 22), PD (n = 19) and MS (n = 27). Aspects analysed include naming accuracy and speed, the nature of incorrect responses, semantic and phonemic verbal fluency, information content in re-telling, and the relationship between test results and self-reports on word-finding difficulties and communicative participation. RESULTS: All groups had impaired verbal fluency, prolonged response times and reduced information content in re-telling. The MSAS group had significantly more signs of anomia than the other groups. Results from the other groups overlapped on a MAS-PD-MS continuum. Both semantically and phonologically incorrect responses were common in the stroke groups, while semantically incorrect ones predominated in the PD and MS groups. All four groups reported a similar negative impact on self-perceived communicative participation. Correlations between self-reports and test results were inconsistent. CONCLUSIONS: Anomia features have quantitative and qualitative similarities and differences across neurological conditions.

People with moderate or severe anomia after stroke not only exhibit more severe symptoms of word-finding difficulties but also manifest a wide variety of such symptoms, compared to people with Parkinson's disease or multiple sclerosis.The present findings underscore the need to ask patients about their self-perceived word-finding difficulties.Regardless of the degree of difficulties or the underlying condition, self-perceived word-finding difficulties can have a negative impact on communicative participation and should therefore be appropriately addressed.An assessment comprising aspects such as verbal fluency, connected-speech tasks and the measurement of response times in naming tasks may serve to affirm the self-reported word-finding difficulties.

Brain Areas Critical for Picture Naming: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Lesion-Symptom Mapping Studies.

Lesion-symptom mapping (LSM) studies have revealed brain areas critical for naming, typically finding significant associations between damage to left temporal, inferior parietal, and inferior fontal regions and impoverished naming performance. However, specific subregions found in the available literature vary. Hence, the aim of this study was to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of published lesion-based findings, obtained from studies with unique cohorts investigating brain areas critical for accuracy in naming in stroke patients at least 1 month post-onset. An anatomic likelihood estimation (ALE) meta-analysis of these LSM studies was performed. Ten papers entered the ALE meta-analysis, with similar lesion coverage over left temporal and left inferior frontal areas. This small number is a major limitation of the present study. Clusters were found in left anterior temporal lobe, posterior temporal lobe extending into inferior parietal areas, in line with the arcuate fasciculus, and in pre- and postcentral gyri and middle frontal gyrus. No clusters were found in left inferior frontal gyrus. These results were further substantiated by examining five naming studies that investigated performance beyond global accuracy, corroborating the ALE meta-analysis results. The present review and meta-analysis highlight the involvement of left temporal and inferior parietal cortices in naming, and of mid to posterior portions of the temporal lobe in particular in conceptual-lexical retrieval for speaking.

Corrigendum: Case report: Improving verbal retrieval deficits with high definition transcranial direct current stimulation targeting the pre-supplementary motor area in a patient with chronic traumatic brain injury.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.678518.].

"It's on the tip of my tongue!" exploring confrontation naming difficulties in patients with multiple sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Naming difficulty is commonly reported by patients with multiple sclerosis (pwMS). Though many cognitive batteries recommended for pwMS include fluency tasks, they do not include naming tasks. The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence of naming impairment in pwMS by using a measure of confrontation naming and to identify correlates with neuroimaging. METHODS: One-hundred-eighty-five pwMS (Mage = 48.75 ± 11.23) completed neuropsychological testing and fifty had brain MRI scans within one year of neuropsychological testing. Controlling for demographic variables, partial correlations and hierarchical regressions with language tests as the outcome variables and neuroimaging variables as predictors were performed. RESULTS: Performance on language tasks ranged within low average to average, with impairment most frequently found on a measure of confrontation naming (Boston Naming Test [BNT];27.6%), followed by a measure of phonemic fluency (Controlled Oral Word Association Test [COWAT]; 24.3%) and semantic fluency (animals [AF]; 18.3%). In the subset of patients with neuroimaging, thalamic volume had the strongest relationship with language variables, followed by white matter volume and T2 lesion volume. Language variables had no association with fractional gray matter volume. Of the language measures, BNT demonstrated the strongest relationship with MRI variables, followed by AF. There were no significant associations between neuroimaging variables and COWAT. Regression results revealed that fractional thalamic volume significantly contributed to BNT scores after adjusting for demographics, while T2 lesion volume predicted AF and no neuroimaging variables emerged as predictors for COWAT after controlling for demographics. CONCLUSIONS: Objective naming impairment is common in pwMS and are more strongly associated with neuroimaging of MS brain pathology than verbal fluency tasks that are commonly used in cognitive batteries for pwMS. Continued research on language (especially naming) deficits and neuroimaging correlates (particularly thalamic involvement) in pwMS is needed.

Word finding, prosody and social cognition in multiple sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Impairments in speech and social cognition have been reported in people with multiple sclerosis (pwMS), although their relationships with neuropsychological outcomes and their clinical utility in MS are unclear. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate word finding, prosody and social cognition in pwMS relative to healthy controls (HC). METHODS: We recruited people with relapsing MS (RMS, n = 21), progressive MS (PMS, n = 24) and HC (n = 25) from an outpatient MS clinic. Participants completed a battery of word-finding, social cognitive, neuropsychological and clinical assessments and performed a speech task for prosodic analysis. RESULTS: Of 45 pwMS, mean (SD) age was 49.4 (9.4) years, and median (range) Expanded Disability Severity Scale score was 3.5 (1.0-6.5). Compared with HC, pwMS were older and had slower information processing speed (measured with the Symbol Digit Modalities Test, SDMT) and higher depression scores. Most speech and social cognitive measures were associated with information processing speed but not with depression. Unlike speech, social cognition consistently correlated with intelligence and memory. Visual naming test mean response time (VNT-MRT) demonstrated worse outcomes in MS versus HC (p = .034, Nagelkerke's R2  = 65.0%), and in PMS versus RMS (p = .009, Nagelkerke's R2  = 50.2%). Rapid automatised object naming demonstrated worse outcomes in MS versus HC (p = .014, Nagelkerke's R2  = 49.1%). These word-finding measures showed larger effect sizes than that of the SDMT (MS vs. HC, p = .010, Nagelkerke's R2  = 40.6%; PMS vs. RMS, p = .023, Nagelkerke's R2  = 43.5%). Prosody and social cognition did not differ between MS and HC. CONCLUSIONS: Word finding, prosody and social cognition in MS are associated with information processing speed and largely independent of mood. Impairment in visual object meaning perception is potentially a unique MS disease-related deficit that could be further explored and cautiously considered as an adjunct disability metric for MS.

Naming ability assessment in neurocognitive disorders: a clinician's perspective.

BACKGROUND: Detecting impaired naming capacity is valuable in diagnosing neurocognitive disorders (ND). A. clinical practice- oriented overview of naming tests validated in ND is not available yet. Here, features of naming tests with validated utility in ND which are open access or available for purchase are succinctly presented and compared. METHODS: Searches were carried out across Pubmed, Medline and Google Scholar. Additional studies were identified by searching reference lists. Only peer-reviewed journal articles were eligible. A narrative- and tabullar synthesis was used to summarize different aspects of the naming assessment instruments used in patients with ND such as stimuli type, administration time, assessment parameters and accessibility. Based on computational word frequency calculations, the tests were compared in terms of the average frequency of their linguistic content. RESULTS: Twelve naming tests, relying either on visual or auditory stimuli have been validated in ND. Their content and administration time vary between three and 60 items and one and 20 minutes, respectively. The average frequency of the words of each considered test was two or lower, pointing to low frequency of most items. In all but one test, scoring systems are exclusively based on correctly named items. Seven instruments are open access and four are available in more than one language. CONCLUSIONS: Gaining insights into naming tests' characteristics may catalyze the wide incorporation of those with short administration time but high diagnostic accuracy into the diagnostic workup of ND at primary healthcare and of extensive, visual or auditory ones into the diagnostic endeavors of memory clinics, as well as of secondary and tertiary brain healthcare settings.

Word-finding behaviours in narration for typically developing French speakers of school age.

BACKGROUND: Research in word-finding difficulties is sparse, especially in languages other than English. As a result, the factors associated with the frequency of word-finding behaviours are poorly understood, particularly in discourse. AIMS: This exploratory study is the first to collect data relative to the expected frequency of word-finding behaviours in narration for French speakers aged 7-12 years old with typical development; and (2) to identify the factors associated with the frequency of word-finding behaviours in narration. We hypothesized that sociodemographic characteristics, language abilities and characteristics of the spoken productions could be linked to word-finding behaviours. METHODS & PROCEDURES: The participants consisted of 61 French-speaking children aged 7-12 years old (M = 9;09 years, SD = 1;06 years) with typical development. Children were asked to complete a receptive vocabulary task, a non-word-repetition task and two narrative tasks. The children's narrative samples were coded using a discourse analysis of word-finding behaviours, as described by Diane J. German. OUTCOMES & RESULTS: Participants produced 39% of T-units with least one word-finding behaviour, which included relatively frequent use of repetitions and word reformulations. Regression analyses revealed that the participants' gender was the only significant variable associated with the frequency of word-finding behaviours in narration. Boys produced a higher percentage of T-units with at least one word-finding behaviour. Post-hoc analyses suggested that gender differences reflected differences in repetitions and word reformulations. Boys and girls did not differ on any other language measures collected. CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS: Speech-language pathologists may want to take into account a child's gender when assessing word-finding difficulties in narration. Additional studies are needed to understand whether this finding extends to other word-finding tasks and to children with word-finding difficulties. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on the subject Studies in English have identified that analyses of word-finding behaviours in discourse can be used to correctly identify children with word-finding difficulties. Studies are needed in other languages to determine if this observation holds true across languages. Moreover, the factors associated with the frequency of word-finding behaviours in discourse are poorly understood. What this paper adds to existing knowledge The frequency of word-finding difficulties in narration was higher in our study of French-speaking children than in previous studies of English. Gender was the only factor associated with the frequency of word-finding difficulties. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? The language and task used to assess word-finding skills as well as the child's gender may be important to take into account when assessing word-finding difficulties based on word-finding behaviours.

Identifying Stuttering in Arabic Speakers Who Stutter: Development of a Non-word Repetition Task and Preliminary Results.

Stuttering and other conditions that affect speech fluency need to be identified at an early age in order that effective interventions can be given before the problems becomes chronic. This applies in countries where several languages are spoken including those in which English and Arabic are both widely used which calls for assessment procedures that work across these languages. The 'universal' non-word repetition task (UNWR) has been established as an effective screening tool for discriminating between children who stutter (CWS) and children with word-finding difficulty for a number of languages. However, the UNWR does not apply to languages such as Arabic and Spanish. The present study aimed to: (1) introduce an Arabic English NWR (AEN_NWR); which was developed based on the same phonologically informed approach used with UNWR; (2) present preliminary non-word repetition data from Arabic-speaking CWS and adults who stutter (AWS). The AEN_NWR items comprises twenty-seven non-words that meet lexical phonology constraints across Arabic and English. The set of items includes non-words of two, three and four syllables in length. Preliminary non-word repetition data were collected from ten CWS between the ages of 6;5 and 16;7 (M age = 12:1) and fourteen AWS between the ages of 19;2 and 31;0 (M age = 24). Participants performed the non-word repetition task and provided a sample of spontaneous speech. The spontaneous speech samples were used to estimate %stuttered syllables (%SS). To validate that AEN_NWR performance provides an alternative way of assessing stuttering, a significant correlation was predicted between %SS and AEN_NWR performance. Also, word length should affect repetition accuracy of AEN_NWR. As predicted, there was a significant negative correlation between the AEN_NWR and %SS scores (r (25) = -0.5), p < 0.000). Overall, CWS were less accurate in their repetition than AWS at all syllable lengths. The AEN_NWR provides a new assessment tool for detecting stuttering in speaker of Arabic and English. Future studies would benefit from a larger sample of participants, and by testing a population-based sample. These studies would allow further investigation of the AEN_NWR as a screening measure for stuttering in preschool children.

Semantic Versus Orthographic Preferences in Aphasia: Behavioral Evidence.

In this study, we compared the orthographic and semantic preferences of healthy adults and age and gender matched adults with aphasia, an acquired language disorder. Previous research in word retrieval and word associations has addressed semantic and phonological connections, but it has not as often included analyses of orthographic skills. We matched (on age and gender) 10 neurotypical adults and 11 older adults with aphasia and administered to both groups a lexical discrimination task requiring them to select, from 18 choices, those words that were most different from three words (daughter, laughter, son). Among the choices were foil words (e.g., daughter), orthographic similarities (laughter) and semantic similarities (son). Results revealed that individuals with aphasia focused on orthographic differences, while healthy adults chose semantic differences. Further studies should further explore this orthographic focus to develop treatment strategies, using behavioral and objective measures, for word-finding deficits in aphasia.

Word-finding difficulties in Parkinson's disease: Complex verbal fluency, executive functions and other influencing factors.

BACKGROUND: Persons with Parkinson's disease (PD) frequently report word-finding difficulties. Many of the established tests are, however, insufficient in detecting mild cases of such symptoms. Results from earlier research have suggested that controlled oral word association tests (COWATs) with high demands on cognitive processing resources could prove helpful in detecting the more subtle (language-related) problems seen in neurological disorders such as PD. AIMS: First, to examine whether persons with PD (PwPD) differ in performance on different types of COWATs compared with non-brain-damaged controls. Second, to investigate possible relationships between executive functions and the novel complex oral semantic fluency (COSEF) task performance scores in the PwPD group. Third, to investigate whether age, years of education, severity of motor symptoms and self-perceived severity of word-finding difficulties influenced the COSEF task results. METHODS & PROCEDURES: A total of 17 PwPD participated in the study. Their results were compared with a matched control group (n = 17) at both group and individual levels. One phonemic and two types of semantic COWATs were used. Correlations between the COSEF task and executive function results, age, education and severity of motor symptoms were analysed in the PwPD group. OUTCOMES & RESULTS: The PwPD group had significantly lower scores on the COSEF task compared with the control group, but not on the other COWATs. A variation in the results was seen on an individual level. In the PwPD group, large significant correlations were seen between the COSEF task and verbally based tasks measuring working memory and cognitive flexibility. Both age and education, but neither self-perceived severity of word-finding difficulties nor motor symptoms, were correlated with the COSEF task result in the group of PwPD. CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS: The results are in line with the predictions that a relatively more cognitive demanding COWAT such as the COSEF task could prove valuable when assessing word-finding difficulties in PD in research and clinical assessment. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on the subject Varying degrees of word-finding difficulties are a common symptom in PD and may affect everyday communication. Discreet word-finding difficulties can be hard to detect with the established language assessment tools. What this paper adds to existing knowledge This study adds insights into how PwPD perform on different types of COWATs compared with a control group. It also sheds light on the relationships between a novel, more cognitive complex COWAT and executive functions in PD. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? More cognitively complex COWATs can contribute significantly to the assessment of discreet word-finding difficulties, but it is important to include a thorough anamnesis regarding language and communication in PwPD.