Accumulation of ß-aminoisobutyric acid mediates hyperalgesia in ovariectomized mice through Mas-related G protein-coupled receptor D signaling.

Hyperalgesia is typified by reduced pain thresholds and heightened responses to painful stimuli, with a notable prevalence in menopausal women, but the underlying mechanisms are far from understood. ß-Aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA), a product of valine and thymine catabolism, has been reported to be a novel ligand of the Mas-related G protein coupled receptor D (MrgprD), which mediates pain and hyperalgesia. Here, we established a hyperalgesia model in 8-week-old female mice through ovariectomy (OVX). A significant increase in BAIBA plasma level was observed and was associated with decline of mechanical withdrawal threshold, thermal and cold withdrawal latency in mice after 6 weeks of OVX surgery. Increased expression of MrgprD in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) was shown in OVX mice compared to Sham mice. Interestingly, chronic loading with BAIBA not only exacerbated hyperalgesia in OVX mice, but also induced hyperalgesia in gonadally intact female mice. BAIBA supplementation also upregulated the MrgprD expression in DRG of both OVX and intact female mice, and enhanced the excitability of DRG neurons in vitro. Knockout of MrgprD markedly suppressed the effects of BAIBA on hyperalgesia and excitability of DRG neurons. Collectively, our data suggest the involvement of BAIBA in the development of hyperalgesia via MrgprD-dependent pathway, and illuminate the mechanisms underlying hyperalgesia in menopausal women.

Circulating level of ß-aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA), a novel myokine-like molecule, is inversely associated with fat mass in patients with heart failure.

Results of experimental studies have shown that ß-aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA), an exercise-induced myokine-like molecule, is an endogenous negative regulator of fat mass in mice, but it remains unclear whether that is the case in humans, though an enhanced BAIBA concentration in patients receiving sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors was found in our recent study. The objective of this study was to analyze the determinants of circulating BAIBA concentration in humans, with focus on the possible link between circulating BAIBA and body composition including fat mass. Data for 188 consecutive patients with heart failure (HF, 64 ± 13 years; 70% male) who received a dual energy X ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scan for assessment of body composition including fat mass index (FMI) and appendicular skeletal muscle mass index (ASMI) were used in this study. Plasma BAIBA concentration in a fasting state after stabilization of HF was determined using ultraperformance liquid chromatography. Plasma BAIBA was detected in 66% of the patients. In simple linear regression analyses of data from patients in whom plasma BAIBA was detected, plasma BAIBA concentration was positively correlated with uric acid and was negatively correlated with body mass index (BMI), estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), FMI, and % body fat. There were no correlations between plasma BAIBA concentration and indexes of muscle mass and bone mass. The results of multiple linear regression analyses showed that FMI and % body fat in addition to BMI, but not ASMI, were independent explanatory factors for plasma BAIBA concentration. In conclusion, plasma BAIBA concentration is inversely correlated with indexes of fat mass, indicating that BAIBA may be a therapeutic target for excessive fat accumulation.

Deciphering the Molecular Mechanism of HCV Protease Inhibitor Fluorination as a General Approach to Avoid Drug Resistance.

Third generation Hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS3/4A protease inhibitors (PIs), glecaprevir and voxilaprevir, are highly effective across genotypes and against many resistant variants. Unlike earlier PIs, these compounds have fluorine substitutions on the P2-P4 macrocycle and P1 moieties. Fluorination has long been used in medicinal chemistry as a strategy to improve physicochemical properties and potency. However, the molecular basis by which fluorination improves potency and resistance profile of HCV NS3/4A PIs is not well understood. To systematically analyze the contribution of fluorine substitutions to inhibitor potency and resistance profile, we used a multi-disciplinary approach involving inhibitor design and synthesis, enzyme inhibition assays, co-crystallography, and structural analysis. A panel of inhibitors in matched pairs were designed with and without P4 cap fluorination, tested against WT protease and the D168A resistant variant, and a total of 22 high-resolution co-crystal structures were determined. While fluorination did not significantly improve potency against the WT protease, PIs with fluorinated P4 caps retained much better potency against the D168A protease variant. Detailed analysis of the co-crystal structures revealed that PIs with fluorinated P4 caps can sample alternate binding conformations that enable adapting to structural changes induced by the D168A substitution. Our results elucidate molecular mechanisms of fluorine-specific inhibitor interactions that can be leveraged in avoiding drug resistance.

The Effect of TLR Agonists and Myokines on Secretory Activity of Adipogenically Differentiated MSC Cultures.

We studied the effect of bacterial pathogen-associated molecular patterns and myokines on the secretion of adipokines by mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) and products of their adipogenic differentiation. The secretion of adiponectin, adipsin, leptin, and insulin by adipogenically differentiated cell cultures was quantitatively determined using multiplex ELISA. MSC obtained from the stromal vascular fraction of human subcutaneous adipose tissue were shown to secrete a known adipokine adipsin. The ability of white adipocytes to secrete significant amounts of insulin (in vitro) has been shown for the first time. Control cultures of white adipocytes secreted much higher levels of adiponectin, leptin, and insulin when compared to other adipocytes cultures. On the other hand, beige and brown adipocyte cultures secreted more adipsin than white adipocyte cultures. The influence of myokine ß-aminoisobutyric acid on the secretion of adipsin in MSC, white, beige, and brown adipocytes was also studied.

The ameliorative effects of thymoquinone and beta-aminoisobutyric acid on streptozotocin-induced diabetic cardiomyopathy.

Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a cardiac dysfunction observed in a patient with diabetes that may lead to heart failure. No specific treatment has yet been tested in DCM. Therefore, in this study, it was investigated that the potential of thymoquinone (TYM) and beta-aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA) to treat DCM. Five groups (n = 7) were formed, namely control, diabetes, TYM, BAIBA and TYM + BAIBA, with a random selection from 35 adult male rats. Diabetes mellitus was induced by intraperitoneal administration of 50 mg/kg streptozotocin to all groups except the control. After establishing experimental diabetes, TYM (20 mg/kg/day) and BAIBA (100 mg/kg/day) were administered alone or in combination with other groups other than the control and diabetes groups for five weeks by gavage. Serum aspartate aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, creatine kinase-MB, and tissue malondialdehyde levels increased significantly, and tissue glutathione levels decreased in the diabetes group compared to the control group. An increase in the expression of tumor necrosis factor-α in the myocardium and the rate of fibrosis and apoptosis were found in the histopathological analysis. In the TYM and BAIBA groups, all pathological changes observed in the diabetes group improved significantly. The therapeutic effects of these agents on DCM are probably due to their antihyperglycemic, antidiabetic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects. The present results suggested that TYM and BAIBA have the potential therapeutic effects on DCM that were used alone or combined.

Region-selective permeability of the blood-brain barrier to α-aminoisobutyric acid during thiamine deficiency and following its reversal.

Thiamine deficiency (TD) results in focal lesions in several regions of the rat brain including the thalamus and inferior colliculus. Since alterations in blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity may play a role in this damage, we have examined the influence of TD on the unidirectional blood-to-brain transfer constant (Ki) of the low molecular weight species α-aminoisobutyric acid (AIB) in vulnerable and non-vulnerable brain regions at different stages during progression of the disorder, and following its reversal with thiamine. Analysis of the regional distribution of Ki values showed early (day 10) increased transfer of [14C]-AIB across the BBB in the vulnerable medial thalamus as well as the non-vulnerable caudate and hippocampus. At the acute symptomatic stage (day 14), more widespread BBB permeability changes were detected in most areas including the lateral thalamus, inferior colliculus, and non-vulnerable cerebellum and pons. Twenty-four hours following thiamine replenishment, a heterogeneous pattern of increased BBB permeability was observed in which many structures maintained increased uptake of [14C]-AIB. No increase in the [3H]-dextran space, a marker of intravascular volume, was detected in brain regions during the progress of TD, suggesting that BBB permeability to this large tracer was unaffected. These results indicate that BBB opening i) occurs early during TD, ii) is not restricted to vulnerable areas of the brain, iii) is progressive, iv) persists for at least 24 h following treatment with thiamine, and v) is likely selective in nature, depending on the molecular species being transported.

ß-Aminoisobutyric Acid Suppresses Atherosclerosis in Apolipoprotein E-Knockout Mice.

Endurance exercise training has been shown to induce peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) expression in skeletal muscle. We recently reported that skeletal muscle-specific PGC-1α overexpression suppressed atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-knockout (ApoE-/-) mice. ß-Aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA) is a PGC-1α-dependent myokine secreted from myocytes that affects multiple organs. We have also reported that BAIBA suppresses tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) gene expression in endothelial cells. In the present study, we hypothesized that BAIBA suppresses atherosclerosis progression, and tested that hypothesis with ApoE-/- mice. The mice were administered water containing BAIBA for 14 weeks, and were then sacrificed at 20 weeks of age. Atherosclerotic plaque area, plasma BAIBA concentration, and plasma lipoprotein profiles were assessed. Immunohistochemical analyses of the plaque were performed to assess VCAM-1 and MCP-1 protein expression levels and macrophage infiltration. The results showed that BAIBA administration decreased atherosclerosis plaque area by 30%, concomitant with the elevation of plasma BAIBA levels. On the other hand, plasma lipoprotein profiles were not changed by the administration. Immunohistochemical analyses indicated reductions in VCAM-1, MCP-1, and Mac-2 protein expression levels in the plaque. These results suggest that BAIBA administration suppresses atherosclerosis progression without changing plasma lipoprotein profiles. We propose that the mechanisms of this suppression are reductions in both VCAM-1 and MCP-1 expression as well as macrophage infiltration into the plaque.

Discovery of 2-aminoisobutyric acid ethyl ester (AIBEE) phosphoramidate prodrugs for delivering nucleoside HCV NS5B polymerase inhibitors.

Our HCV research program investigated novel 2'-dihalogenated nucleoside HCV polymerase inhibitors and identified compound 1, a 5'-phosphoramidate prodrug of 2'-deoxy-2'-α-bromo-ß-chloro uridine. Although 1 had a favorable in vitro activity profile in HCV replicons, oral dosing in dog resulted in low levels of the active 5'-triphosphate (TP) in liver. Metabolism studies using human hepatocytes provided a simple assay for screening alternative phosphoramidate prodrug analogs. Compounds that produced high TP concentrations in hepatocytes were tested in dog liver biopsy studies. This method identified 2-aminoisobutyric acid ethyl ester (AIBEE) phosphoramidate prodrug 14, which provided 100-fold higher TP concentrations in dog liver in comparison to 1 (4 and 24 h after 5 mg/kg oral dose).

NS5A-P32 Deletion in Hepatitis C Genotype 1b Infection is the Most Refractory Treatment-Mediated Amino Acid Change Exhibiting Resistance to all NS5A Inhibitors.

NS5A-P32 deletion (P32del) is a resistance-associated amino acid change that has recently gained popularity in direct-acting antiviral treatment for chronic hepatitis C. Although not yet detected in naive patients, it appears in 5 to 10% of hepatitis C genotype 1b patients who fail to respond to daclatasvir/asunaprevir and sofosbuvir/ledipasvir treatments. In contrast to signature resistance-associated substitutions, such as substitutions at the NS5A-L31 and NS5A-Y93 positions, it shows complete resistance to all NS5A inhibitors in replicon and cell culture. Studies of humanized liver mice suggest that P32del retains good replication fitness and requires two classes of antivirals, except NS5A inhibitors, to be suppressed effectively. Patients with the P32del virus do not respond to glecaprevir/pibrentasvir but do respond to sofosbuvir/velpatasvir/voxilaprevir, presumably to sofosbuvir + glecaprevir/pibrentasvir, and at least partially to sofosbuvir/velpatasvir + ribavirin. Attention should be given to P32del in patients who experience failure with any NS5A inhibitor, especially those with genotype 1b infection.

Beta-Aminoisobutyric Acid Inhibits Hypothalamic Inflammation by Reversing Microglia Activation.

Beta-aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA), a natural thymine catabolite, is involved in the beneficial effects of exercise on metabolic disorders. In particular, it has been reported to reverse the inflammatory processes observed in the peripheral organs of animal models of obesity. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate whether BAIBA improves hypothalamic inflammation, which is also tightly coupled with the development of obesity. We observed that treatment with BAIBA effectively reversed palmitic acid-induced hypothalamic inflammation and microglial activation in vivo. Consistent with these findings, we confirmed that BAIBA reversed body weight gain and increased adiposity observed in mice fed with a high-fat diet. Collectively, the current findings evidence the beneficial impacts of BAIBA on the imbalance of energy metabolism linked to hypothalamic inflammation.

ß-aminoisobutyric acid protects against vascular inflammation through PGC-1ß-induced antioxidative properties.

BACKGROUD: Among various myocyte-derived bioactive molecules (myokines), ß-aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA) is a unique myokine that attenuates skeletal muscle insulin resistance and inflammation, increases browning of white adipose tissue, and enhances hepatic fatty acid oxidation, resulting in upregulated energy expenditure of the whole body. In the present study, we investigated the effects of BAIBA on the vascular endothelial cell function. METHODS: The mRNA levels of proinflammatory molecules, antioxidants, and their related transcription regulators were examined by quantitative RT-PCR in BAIBA-treated human aortic or umbilical vein endothelial cells (HAEC or HUVEC, respectively), with or without tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α stimulation. The protein expression and phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) were determined by Western blot analysis. RESULTS: BAIBA pretreatment significantly suppressed the mRNA levels of the adhesion molecules in the TNF-α-stimulated HAEC and HUVEC. BAIBA treatment significantly increased the mRNA levels of antioxidant molecules, catalase, superoxide dismutases, thioredoxin, and gamma-glutamylcysteine ligases, together with mitochondrial biogenesis-related molecules, nuclear respiratory factor 1, and mitochondrial transcription factor A. In addition, BAIBA treatment significantly increased the transcription factors that regulated these genes [i.e., peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-δ, PPAR-γ, estrogen-related receptor α (ERRα), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator (PGC)-1ß]. Adenovirus-mediated PGC-1ß overexpression significantly increased the mRNA levels of all antioxidant molecules. The phosphorylation levels of AMPK and eNOS were unaltered by BAIBA. CONCLUSIONS: In vascular endothelial cells, BAIBA had antiatherogenic effects through the PGC-1ß-ERRα/PPAR-δ and PPAR-γ pathway. This can explain the beneficial effects of exercise on vascular endothelial function.

Skeletal Muscle-specific PGC-1α Overexpression Suppresses Atherosclerosis in Apolipoprotein E-Knockout Mice.

Endurance exercise training prevents atherosclerosis. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) increases myokine secretion from the skeletal muscle, and these myokines have been shown to affect the function of multiple organs. Since endurance exercise training increases PGC-1α expression in skeletal muscles, we investigated whether skeletal muscle-specific PGC-1α overexpression suppresses atherosclerosis. Apolipoprotein E-knockout (ApoE-KO)/PGC-1α mice, which overexpress PGC-1α in the skeletal muscle of ApoE-KO mice, were sacrificed, and the atherosclerotic plaque area, spontaneous activity, plasma lipid profile, and aortic gene expression were measured. Immunohistochemical analyses were also performed. The atherosclerotic lesions in ApoE-KO/PGC-1α mice were 40% smaller than those in ApoE-KO mice, concomitant with the reduction in vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) mRNA and protein levels in the aorta. Spontaneous activity and plasma lipid profiles were not changed by the overexpression of PGC-1α in the skeletal muscle. In human umbilical vein endothelial cells, Irisin and ß-aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA), PGC-1α-dependent myokines, inhibited the tumor necrosis factor α-induced VCAM-1 gene and protein expression. BAIBA also inhibited TNFα-induced MCP-1 gene expression. These results showed that the skeletal muscle-specific overexpression of PGC-1α suppresses atherosclerosis and that PGC-1α-dependent myokines may be involved in the preventive effects observed.

Dynamic of lipid droplets and gene expression in response to ß-aminoisobutyric acid treatment on 3T3-L1 cells.

Research on adipobiology has recognized the browning process of white adipocytes as a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of obesity and related morbidities. Physical exercise stimulates the secretion of myokines, such as b-aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA), which in turn promotes adaptive thermogenesis. White adipocyte conversion to brown cells involves dynamic changes in lipid droplet (LD) dimension and in the transcription of brown-specific marker genes. This study analyzes the effect of different doses of BAIBA and at different days of development on 3T3-L1 cells by evaluating morphological changes in LDs and the expression of browning gene markers. Results suggested that the highest concentration of BAIBA after 4 days of differentiation produced the most significant effects. The number of LDs per cell increased in comparison to control cells, whereas the surface area significantly decreased. Brown adipocyte markers were up-regulated, but the effect of treatment was lost at 10 days of differentiation. The thermogenic program induced by BAIBA may reflect a rapid adaptation of adipose tissue to physical exercise. This connection stresses the beneficial impact of physical exercise on metabolic health. The thermogenic program induced by BAIBA may reflect a rapid adaptation of adipose tissue to physical exercise. This connection stresses the beneficial impact of physical exercise on metabolic health.

BAIBA Attenuates the Expression of Inflammatory Cytokines and Attachment Molecules and ER Stress in HUVECs and THP-1 Cells.

OBJECTIVE: ß-Aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA), a myokine, is a thymine catabolite that is induced during exercise, leading to browning of white fat, hepatic fatty acid oxidation, and suppression of hepatic lipogenesis. However, the effects of BAIBA on the progression of atherosclerosis remain unclear. METHODS: We performed a Western blot analyses to determine various protein expression. ELISAs (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays), cell adhesion assays, and cell viability assays were also performed on human umbilical vascular endothelial cells (HUVECs) and human monocytes (THP-1 cells). RESULTS: In the current study, we demonstrate that BAIBA suppresses atherosclerotic reactions caused by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment via an AMPK-dependent pathway. Treatment of HUVECs and THP-1 cells with BAIBA inhibited the LPS-induced phosphorylation of nuclear factor-κB (NFκB) and the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. In HUVECs, expression of adhesion molecules and LPS-stimulated adhesion of THP-1 cells to the endothelium were significantly decreased after BAIBA treatment. Furthermore, LPS-induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and cell toxicity were significantly decreased after BAIBA treatment of HUVECs. Notably, all of these proatherosclerotic effects were fully abrogated by treatment with small interfering RNA targeting AMPK. CONCLUSION: BAIBA ameliorates LPS-induced atherosclerotic reactions via AMPK-mediated suppression of inflammation and ER stress.

ß-aminoisobutyric acid accelerates the proliferation and differentiation of MC3T3-E1 cells via moderate activation of ROS signaling.

BACKGROUD: Osteoporosis is one of the bone-metabolic diseases associated with decreased bone renewal and bone mineral density. ß-aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA), a natural thymine catabolite, can reduce inflammation in skeletal muscle and alleviate hepatic endoplasmic reticulum stress. However, the roles of BAIBA in osteoblast proliferation and differentiation remain largely unknown. METHODS: The cultured MC3T3-E1 cells received various treatments in this study, including BAIBA alone, H2O2 alone, BAIBA plus N-acetyl-l-cysteine and BAIBA plus apocynin. Cell proliferation was determined by CCK-8 assay and 3H-Thymidine incorporation. Cell differentiation was evaluated by determining mRNA level of differentiation makers and ALP, and ALP activity. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) were determined by DHE staining while superoxide anion level and NAD(P)H oxidase activity were determined by the lucigenin-derived chemiluminescence method. The content of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was detected using a commercial kit. The level of NOX1, NOX2 and NOX4 was determined by Western-blot or qRT-PCR. RESULTS: We show that treatment of BAIBA stimulated the proliferation of MC3T3-E1 osteoprogenitor cells and enhanced the gene expression of osteoblast differentiation markers. Incubation of MC3T3-E1 cells with BAIBA evoked increases in NAD(P)H oxidase-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS). Scavenging of reactive oxygen species (N-acetyl-l-cysteine) or inhibition of NAD(P)H oxidase (apocynin) abolished the BAIBA-elicited proliferation and differentiation of MC3T3-E1 cells. CONCLUSION: Our results provide the first evidence that BAIBA stimulates proliferation and differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells via activation of NAD(P)H oxidase/ROS signaling.

Urinary Metabolites Associated with Blood Pressure on a Low- or High-Sodium Diet.

Dietary salt intake has significant effects on arterial blood pressure and the development of hypertension. Mechanisms underlying salt-dependent changes in blood pressure remain poorly understood, and it is difficult to assess blood pressure salt-sensitivity clinically. Methods: We examined urinary levels of metabolites in 103 participants of the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH)-Sodium trial after nearly 30 days on a defined diet containing high sodium (targeting 150 mmol sodium intake per day) or low sodium (50 mmol per day). Targeted chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis was performed in 24 h urine samples for 47 amino metabolites and 10 metabolites related to the tricarboxylic acid cycle. The effect of an identified metabolite on blood pressure was examined in Dahl salt-sensitive rats. Results: Urinary metabolite levels improved the prediction of classification of blood pressure salt-sensitivity based on race, age and sex. Random forest and generalized linear mixed model analyses identified significant (false discovery rate <0.05) associations of 24 h excretions of ß-aminoisobutyric acid, cystine, citrulline, homocysteine and lysine with systolic blood pressure and cystine with diastolic blood pressure. The differences in homocysteine levels between low- and high-sodium intakes were significantly associated with the differences in diastolic blood pressure. These associations were significant with or without considering demographic factors. Treatment with ß-aminoisobutyric acid significantly attenuated high-salt-induced hypertension in Dahl salt-sensitive rats. Conclusion: These findings support the presence of new mechanisms of blood pressure regulation involving metabolic intermediaries, which could be developed as markers or therapeutic targets for salt-sensitive hypertension.

ß-aminoisobutyric acid attenuates LPS-induced inflammation and insulin resistance in adipocytes through AMPK-mediated pathway.

BACKGROUND: ß-aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA) is produced in skeletal muscle during exercise and has beneficial effects on obesity-related metabolic disorders such as diabetes and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Thus, it is supposed to prevent high fat diet (HFD)-induced inflammation and insulin resistance in adipose tissue though anti-inflammatory effects in obesity. Previous reports have also demonstrated strong anti-inflammatory effects of BAIBA. METHODS: We used BAIBA treated fully differentiated 3T3T-L1 mouse adipocytes to investigate the effects of exogenous BAIBA on inflammation and insulin signaling in adipocytes. Insulin signaling-mediated proteins and inflammation markers were measured by Western blot analysis. Secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines were measured by ELISA. Lipid accumulation in differentiated 3 T3-L1 cells was stained by Oil red-O. Statistical analysis was performed by ANOVA and student's t test. RESULTS: BAIBA treatment suppressed adipogenesis assessed by adipogenic markers as well as lipid accumulation after full differentiation. We showed that BAIBA treatment stimulated AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) phosphorylation in a dose-dependent manner and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNFα and MCP-1 was abrogated in BAIBA-treated 3 T3-L1 cells. Treatment of 3 T3-L1 cells with BAIBA reduced LPS-induced NFκB and IκB phosphorylation. Furthermore, BAIBA treatment ameliorated LPS-induced impairment of insulin signaling measured by IRS-1 and Akt phosphorylation and fatty acid oxidation. Suppression of AMPK by small interfering (si) RNA significantly restored these changes. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrated anti-inflammatory and anti-insulin resistance effects of BAIBA in differentiated 3 T3-L1 cells treated with LPS through AMPK-dependent signaling. These results provide evidence for the beneficial effects of BAIBA not only in liver and skeletal muscle cells but also in adipose tissue.

Ethylene sensitivity and relative air humidity regulate root hydraulic properties in tomato plants.

MAIN CONCLUSION: The effect of ethylene and its precursor ACC on root hydraulic properties, including aquaporin expression and abundance, is modulated by relative air humidity and plant sensitivity to ethylene. Relative air humidity (RH) is a main factor contributing to water balance in plants. Ethylene (ET) is known to be involved in the regulation of root water uptake and stomatal opening although its role on plant water balance under different RH is not very well understood. We studied, at the physiological, hormonal and molecular levels (aquaporins expression, abundance and phosphorylation state), the plant responses to exogenous 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC; precursor of ET) and 2-aminoisobutyric acid (AIB; inhibitor of ET biosynthesis), after 24 h of application to the roots of tomato wild type (WT) plants and its ET-insensitive never ripe (nr) mutant, at two RH levels: regular (50%) and close to saturation RH. Highest RH induced an increase of root hydraulic conductivity (Lpo) of non-treated WT plants, and the opposite effect in nr mutants. The treatment with ACC reduced Lpo in WT plants at low RH and in nr plants at high RH. The application of AIB increased Lpo only in nr plants at high RH. In untreated plants, the RH treatment changed the abundance and phosphorylation of aquaporins that affected differently both genotypes according to their ET sensitivity. We show that RH is critical in regulating root hydraulic properties, and that Lpo is affected by the plant sensitivity to ET, and possibly to ACC, by regulating aquaporins expression and their phosphorylation status. These results incorporate the relationship between RH and ET in the response of Lpo to environmental changes.

ß-Aminoisobutyric acid ameliorates the renal fibrosis in mouse obstructed kidneys via inhibition of renal fibroblast activation and fibrosis.

Renal fibrosis is a hallmark feature of chronic kidney disease, which is reflected by proliferation and migration of interstitial fibroblasts and extracellular matrix (ECM) accumulation. ß-Aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA) is recently demonstrated to exert a protective role from metabolic diseases. However, whether and how BAIBA on fibroblast activation and renal fibrosis response to angiotensin II (Ang II) remains largely obscure. Herein, we showed that BAIBA significantly depressed the proliferation and migration of NRK-49F cells in vitro. Treatment with Ang II remarkably up-regulated the expressions of fibronectin (FN), collagen 1 (COL 1), α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), interleukin-17 (IL-17) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NOX2)-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in cultured NRK-49F cells. Pretreatment with BAIBA almost blocked Ang II-induced ECM production and IL-17-mediated oxidative stress in NRK-49F cells. BAIBA treatment ameliorates fibroblasts activation and renal fibrosis in rat obstructed kidneys involving inhibition of Ang II/IL-17/ROS signaling transduction, which may be considered as a therapeutic candidate for fibrosis-related diseases.

BAIBA Does Not Regulate UCP-3 Expression in Human Skeletal Muscle as a Response to Aerobic Exercise.

OBJECTIVE: ß-Aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA) has shown to modulate uncoupling protein (UCP)-1 expression, which is mainly expressed in white adipose tissue; however, no studies to date have analyzed its potential effect on the main uncoupling protein of skeletal muscle, UCP-3. The main goal of this study was to assess the potential effect of acute aerobic exercise on serum BAIBA and skeletal muscle UCP-3. The secondary goal was to assess the potential involvement of the transcription factors proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα), as well as free fatty acids (FFAs) in UCP-3 expression. A tertiary goal of the study was to evaluate the potential effect of consuming a preexercise meal on the outcome of the first 2 objectives. METHODS: In a randomized crossover design, untrained participants performed 2 acute cycling sessions (350 kcal at 70% of their VO2peak) after 2 experimental conditions: (1) consumption of a multi-macronutrient shake and (2) a fasting period of 8 hours. Blood samples were taken at baseline, preexercise, postexercise, 1 hour, and 4 hours postexercise, and muscle biopsies were taken at the last 4 time points. UCP-3 protein concentration and expression, as well as the mRNA expression of PGC-1α and PPARα, were measured in muscle, and BAIBA, glucose, and FFA were measured in serum. RESULTS: Aerobic exercise failed to induce a significant effect on serum BAIBA, PGC-1α, and PPARα regardless on the feeding condition. Despite the lack of effect of exercise on the previous variables, UCP-3 expression and protein concentration significantly increased in the shake condition. CONCLUSION: The expression of human skeletal muscle UCP-3 as a result of exercise might be controlled by factors other than BAIBA.