Two-dimensional facial photography for assessment of craniofacial morphology in sleep breathing disorders: a systematic review.

PURPOSE: Craniofacial morphology is integral to Sleep Breathing Disorders (SBD), particularly Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA), informing treatment strategies. This review assesses the utility of two-dimensional (2D) photogrammetry in evaluating these metrics among OSA patients. METHODS: Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic review was conducted. PubMed, Embase, and Lilacs databases were systematically searched for studies utilizing 2D photography in SBD. Findings were narratively synthesized. RESULTS: Thirteen studies involving 2,328 patients were included. Significant correlations were found between craniofacial measurements-specifically neck parameters and facial width-and OSA severity, even after BMI adjustment. Ethnic disparities in craniofacial morphology were observed, with photogrammetry effective in predicting OSA in Caucasians and Asians, though data for other ethnicities were limited. Pediatric studies suggest the potential of craniofacial measurements as predictors of childhood OSA, with certain caveats. CONCLUSION: 2D photogrammetry emerges as a practical and non-invasive tool correlating with OSA severity across diverse populations. However, further validation in various ethnic cohorts is essential to enhance the generalizability of these findings.

Quantitative Assessment of Lip Morphology in Patients With and Without Cleft Lip and Palate Using 3-Dimensional Stereophotogrammetry.

This study aimed to assess and quantify the morphologic characteristics of the lips and the lower third of the face in cleft and noncleft patients, utilizing three-dimensional (3D) stereophotogrammetry. Sixty patients were included in the study, comprising 30 unilateral cleft lip and palate patients (G1, 24 female, 6 male; aged 20 to 60 y, mean age 44.0±12.0 y) and 30 noncleft patients (G2, 23 female, 7 male; aged 20 to 59 y, mean age 43.5±12.0 y). Anthropometric landmarks were identified on the facial surface. Three-dimensional stereophotogrammetry was employed to capture images. Statistical analysis was conducted to compare the groups, with a significance level set at 0.05. The comparative analysis revealed statistically significant differences in 5 linear and 6 angular measurements. Linear measurements such as philtrum width, upper and lower cutaneous lip height, mandibular ramus length, and midfacial depth exhibited significant differences between cleft and noncleft patients. Similarly, angular measurements, including upper lip angle, Cupid's bow angle, lower/medium face convexity, lip seal, nasolabial angle, and left gonial angle, displayed statistically significant disparities. These findings underscore the ongoing surgical challenges in the comprehensive rehabilitation of patients with clefts, highlighting the critical need for continued advancements in treatment strategies.

Measuring mantled howler monkey (Alouatta palliata) testes via parallel laser photogrammetry: Expanding the use of noninvasive methods.

Parallel laser photogrammetry (PLP), which consists of attaching two or three parallel laser beams at a known inter-beam distance to a camera, can be used to collect morphological measurements of organisms noninvasively. The lasers project onto the photo being taken, and because the inter-beam distance is known, they act as a scale for image analysis programs like ImageJ. Traditionally, this method has been used to measure larger morphological traits (e.g., limb length, crown-rump length) to serve as proxies for overall body size, whereas applications to smaller anatomical features remain limited. To that end, we used PLP to measure the testes of 18 free-living mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) at La Selva Biological Station, Costa Rica. We tested whether this method could reliably measure this relatively small and globular morphology, and whether it could detect differences among individuals. We tested reliability in three ways: within-photo (coefficient of variation [CV] = 4.7%), between-photo (CV = 5.5%), and interobserver (intraclass correlation = 0.92). We found an average volume of 36.2 cm3 and a range of 16.4-54.4 cm3, indicating variation in testes size between individuals. Furthermore, these sizes are consistent with a previous study that collected measurements by hand, suggesting that PLP is a useful method for making noninvasive measurements of testes.

Protocol for capturing 3D facial meshes for rhinoseptoplasty planning.

OBJECTIVES: To present and execute a protocol for the capture of 3D facial images using photogrammetry through the open access software Blender and its add-on OrtogOnBlender (OOB) and to evaluate the compatibility of the 3D meshes generated with Computed tomography (CT) of the sinuses. METHODS: Individuals >18 years old, candidates for Rhinoseptoplasty in a tertiary hospital, were submitted to a photographic session to perform the standardized protocol. In the session, divided into 3 phases, sequential photos were taken for processing the photogrammetry in the OOB and producing 3D meshes of the face. The photogrammetry reconstructions were compared with the reference mesh of the soft tissue surface of the Sinus CT scan to assess compatibility between them. RESULTS: 21 patients were included, 67% female. 3 photogrammetry meshes and 1 CT reference mesh were generated, which demonstrated matching compatibility, as most of the mean distances between cloud points were <1.48 mm. Phase 3 of the session with the highest number of photos (54.36 ±â€¯15.05) generated the most satisfactory mesh with the best resolution. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed protocol is reproducible and feasible in clinical practice, generated satisfactory 3D meshes of the face, being a potential tool for surgical planning and comparison of results. For the implementation of photogrammetry for use in 3D anthropometry, it is necessary to validate this method. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 3: OCEBM Levels of Evidence Working Group.1 "The Oxford 2011 Levels of Evidence". Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine. http://www.cebm.net/index.aspx?o=5653.

ARACAM: A RGB-D Multi-View Photogrammetry System for Lower Limb 3D Reconstruction Applications.

In the world, there is a growing need for lower limb prostheses due to a rising number of amputations caused primarily, by diabetic foot. Researchers enable functional and comfortable prostheses through prosthetic design by integrating new technologies applied to the traditional handcrafted method for prosthesis fabrication that is still current. That is why computer vision shows to be a promising tool for the integration of 3D reconstruction that may be useful for prosthetic design. This work has the objective to design, prototype, and test a functional system to scan plaster cast molds, which may serve as a platform for future technologies for lower limb reconstruction applications. The image capture system comprises 5 stereoscopic color and depth cameras, each with 4 DOF mountings on an enveloping frame, as well as algorithms for calibration, segmentation, registration, and surface reconstruction. The segmentation metrics of dice coefficient and Hausdorff distance (HD) show strong visual similarity with an average similarity of 87% and average error of 6.40 mm, respectively. Moving forward, the system was tested on a known 3D printed model obtained from a computer tomography scan to which comparison results via HD show an average error of ≤1.93 mm thereby making the system competitive against the systems reviewed from the state-of-the-art.

Protocolo fotográfico estandarizado para análisis facial en Posición Natural de Cabeza / Standardized photographic protocol for facial analysis in Natural Head Position

RESUMEN: Introducción: La fotogrametría es el proceso por el que se obtienen medidas a partir de una fotografía. Para realizar una correcta toma fotográfica es de suma importancia estandarizar la técnica con el objetivo de obtener registros confiables y reproducibles. Uno de sus requisitos es definir la posición de la cabeza, ya que una postura incorrecta puede conducir a errores en el diagnóstico y planificación del tratamiento. Objetivo: Establecer un protocolo clínico para estandarizar registro fotográfico y posicionamiento del paciente para fotogrametría facial. Materiales y métodos: Se realizaron fotografías faciales estandarizadas a un total de 163 estudiantes. A 76 estudiantes se les realizaron mediciones faciales directas e indirectas. A 87 estudiantes se les comparó su Posición Natural de Cabeza en 3 momentos del día. Se compararon estadísticamente los resultados. Resultados: Al aplicar un protocolo estandarizado, no hubo diferencia estadística entre las medidas directas e indirectas ni al comparar la posición de la cabeza de cada estudiante. Conclusión: La estandarización del set fotográfico expuesto en este trabajo es válida para realizar registros fiables y útiles como examen complementario utilizando la Posición Natural de Cabeza, que permite mantener una posición confiable y estable en el tiempo.

ABSTRACT: Introduction: Photogrammetry is the process by which measurements are obtained from a photograph. To take a correct photographic shoot, it is very important to standardize the technique in order to obtain reliable and reproducible records. One of its requirements is to define the position of the head. Thus, an incorrect posture can lead to errors in diagnosis and treatment planning. Objective: Establish a clinical protocol to standardize photographic registration and patient positioning for facial photogrammetry. Materials and methods: Standardized facial photographs were taken to a total of 163 students. 76 students had direct and indirect facial measurements. 87 students had their Natural Head Position compared at 3 times of the day. The results were statistically compared. Results: When applying a standardized protocol, there was no statistical difference between direct and indirect measurements, nor when comparing the head position of each student. Conclusion: The standardization of the photographic set exposed in this work is valid for making reliable and useful records as a complementary examination using the Natural Head Position, which allows to maintain a reliable and stable position over time.

Mediciones de imágenes fotográficas del pie como una metodología no invasiva y válida en la exploración clínica / Measurements of the Foot Photo Images as a Non-Invasive and Valid Methodology in Clinical Examination

Introducción: La evaluación anatómica músculo esquelética por imagen en la exploración clínica del pie diabético es la fotografía digital que evalúa la morfología superficial. Objetivos: Validar la obtención de las imágenes fotográficas del pie, calcular las mediciones longitudinales, angulares y el índice del arco plantar, de las imágenes fotográficas del pie por fotogrametría, y basados en estas, categorizar la normalidad de la forma en sujetos sanos. Métodos: Estudio exploratorio en 30 individuos sanos evaluados en la Unidad clínica de pie diabético en la ciudad de Trujillo, mediante un prototipo de cámaras alrededor de un podoscopio y un software de análisis de imágenes. La imagen fotográfica fue evaluada por mediciones longitudinales, angulares y el índice del arco plantar. Resultados: Los pacientes evaluados tenían una edad media de 25,06+/-11,95 años, y predominaron las mujeres. La longitud total del pie y anchura del metatarso en el lado derecho fue de 226,55 ± 36,49 mm y 98,99 ± 22,71 mm respectivamente; y en el lado izquierdo fue de 229,81 ± 42,25 mm y 104,49 ± 16,84 mm respectivamente. El ángulo intermetatarsal del 1-2 rayo, ángulo intermetatarsal del 4-5 rayo y ángulo del retropié para el lado derecho fueron 14 ± 4º, 11 ± 3º y 2 ± 2º respectivamente; para el lado izquierdo 14 ± 3º, 9 ± 3º y 2 ± 2º respectivamente, y el índice plantar del arco derecho e izquierdo fueron 0,23 ± 0,2 y 0,22 ± 0,1 respectivamente. La variabilidad solo se presentó en el antepie en el 20 percent de los casos. Conclusiones: La obtención de las imágenes fotográficas del pie fueron válidas, las mediciones fueron menores o similares a otros estudios. La variabilidad de la normalidad solo se presentó en el antepie(AU)

Introduction: The musculoskeletal anatomical evaluation by imaging in the clinical examination of the diabetic foot is digital photography that assesses the superficial morphology. Objectives: To validate the obtaining of photographic images of the foot, to calculate the longitudinal and angular measurements and the index of the plantar arch, from the photographic images of the foot by photogrammetry, and to categorize the normality of the shape in healthy subjects, based on these photographic images. Methods: This an exploratory study in 30 healthy individuals evaluated at the Diabetic Foot Clinical Unit in Trujillo city, using a prototype of cameras around a podoscope and image analysis software. The photographic image was evaluated by longitudinal and angular measurements and the plantar arch index. Results: The patients evaluated had a mean age of 25.06+/-11.95 years, and women predominated. Total foot length and metatarsal width on the right side were 226.55 ± 36.49 mm and 98.99 ± 22.71 mm, respectively; and on the left side it was 229.81 ± 42.25 mm and 104.49 ± 16.84 mm, respectively. The 1st-2nd ray intermetatarsal angle, 4th-5th ray intermetatarsal angle and hindfoot angle for the right side were 14 ± 4º, 11 ± 3º and 2 ± 2º respectively; for the left side 14 ± 3º, 9 ± 3º and 2 ± 2º respectively, and the plantar index of the right and left arch were 0.23 ± 0.2 and 0.22 ± 0.1 respectively. Variability only occurred in the forefoot in 20 percent of cases. Conclusions: Obtaining of the photographic images of the foot was valid, measurements were smaller or similar to other studies. The variability of normality only appeared in the forefoot(AU)

Digital elevation modeling through forests: the challenge of the Amazon / Modelagem digital de elevação através das florestas: o desafio da Amazônia

Elevation mapping at ground level is challenging in forested areas like the Amazon region, which is mostly covered by dense rainforest. The most common techniques, i.e. photogrammetry and short wavelength radar, provide elevations at canopy level at best, while most applications require ground elevations. Even lidar and P-band radar, which can penetrate foliage and measure elevations at ground level, have some limitations which are analyzed in here. We address three research questions: To what extent can a terrain model be replaced by a more easily available canopy-level surface model for topography-based applications? How can the elevation be obtained at ground level through forest? Can a priori knowledge of general continental relief properties be used to compensate for the limits of measurement methods in the presence of forest?(AU)

O mapeamento da elevação ao nível do solo é um desafio em áreas florestadas como a região amazônica, coberta principalmente por floresta tropical densa. As técnicas mais comuns, i.e., a fotogrametria e o radar de comprimento de onda curto, fornecem elevações ao nível do dossel na melhor das hipóteses, enquanto a maioria das aplicações requer a elevação do solo. Mesmo o lidar e o radar de banda P, que podem penetrar a folhagem e medir elevações ao nível do solo, têm algumas limitações que são analisadas aqui. Abordamos três questões: Até que ponto um modelo de terreno pode ser substituído por um modelo de superfície ao nível do dossel, mais facilmente disponível, para aplicações baseadas na topografia? Como a elevação ao nível do solo pode ser obtida através da floresta? O conhecimento a priori das propriedades gerais do relevo continental pode ser usado para compensar os limites dos métodos de medição na presença de floresta?(AU)

Craniocervical Posture Assessed With Photogrammetry and the Accuracy of Palpation Methods for Locating the Seventh Cervical Spinous Process: A Cross-sectional Study.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to compare craniocervical posture assessed by photogrammetry using 2 distinct palpation methods for locating the spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebra (C7SP). METHODS: This cross-sectional study was conducted in 2 phases. In phase I (n = 42), the assessor's accuracy in locating the C7SP using the flexion-extension and the modified thorax-rib static methods was compared to radiography. In phase II (n = 68), the craniocervical posture was analyzed with photogrammetry after palpation using the 2 methods. Neck pain intensity and disability were also determined. RESULTS: The accuracy in locating the C7SP was higher using the modified thorax-rib static method (67%, 95% confidence interval [CI], 55-79) compared to the flexion-extension method (38%, 95% CI, 26-50, P = .016). Lower values of the craniocervical angle were obtained with the flexion-extension method than the modified thorax-rib static method (mean difference = -1.1°, 95% CI, -1.6 to -0.6, P < .001). However, both palpation methods resulted in similar classifications of participants as with or without forward head posture (P = .096). Weak correlations were observed between the craniocervical angle and neck pain intensity (ρ = -0.088 and -0.099, respectively) and disability (ρ = -0.231 and -0.249, respectively). CONCLUSION: Craniocervical angles obtained using palpation methods with different accuracies were different, although the magnitude of the difference was insufficient to lead to different classifications of a forward head posture in adults with mild neck pain and disability. Craniocervical posture was weakly correlated with neck-pain intensity and disability.

Type of maxillary segment mobilization affects three-dimensional nasal morphology.

BACKGROUND: Surgical mobilization of the maxillary segment affects nasal morphology. This study assessed the impact of the type of maxillary mobilization on the three-dimensional (3D) nasal morphometry. METHODS: Pre- and postsurgery cone beam computed tomography-derived facial image datasets of consecutive patients who underwent two-jaw orthognathic surgery were reviewed. Using preoperative 3D facial models as the positional reference of the skeletal framework, 12-month postoperative 3D facial models were classified into four types of maxillary mobilizations (advancement [n = 83], setback [n = 24], intrusion [n = 55], and extrusion [n = 52]) and four types of final maxillary positions (anterosuperior [n = 44], anteroinferior [n = 39], posterosuperior [n = 11], and posteroinferior [n = 13]). Six 3D soft tissue nasal morphometric parameters were measured, with excellent intra- and interexaminer reliability scores (ICC>0.897) for all the measurements. The 3D nasal change for each nasal parameter was computed as the difference between postoperative and preoperative measurement values. RESULTS: The intrusion maxillary mobilization resulted in a significantly (all p<0.05) larger 3D nasal change in terms of alar width, alar base width, and nostril angle parameters, and a smaller change in terms of the nasal tip height parameter than the extrusion maxillary mobilization; however, no significant (all p>0.05) difference was observed between advancement and setback maxillary mobilizations. The anterosuperior and posterosuperior maxillary positions had a significantly (all p<0.05) larger 3D nasal change in terms of the alar base width and nostril angle than the anteroinferior and posteroinferior maxillary positions. CONCLUSION: The type of maxillary mobilization affects the 3D nasal morphometry.

Avaliação quantitativa por fotogrametria tridimensional e da percepção profissional das alterações faciais após lipectomia bucal / Quantitative assessment by three-dimensional photogrammetry and professional perception of facial changes after oral lipectomy

Foi propósito desse estudo identificar se existe diferença na região da bochecha através da fotogrametria tridimensional após lipectomia bucal, bem como verificar a percepção dos profissionais quanto as mudanças faciais após o procedimento. Trata-se de um ensaio clínico quase-experimental sobre a lipectomia bucal. Quinze pacientes foram operados, totalizando 30 lipectomias bucais. Um protocolo fotográfico para fotogrametria tridimensional foi realizado em dois tempos operatórios, T0: pré-operatório e T1:10 meses pós-operatório. A abertura bucal, a massa corporal, a quantidade de gordura removida em gramas e mililitros; e escala visual analógica de dor, foram coletados. Através do Formulário Google®, profissionais especialistas da Odontologia avaliaram as fotografias. A avaliação quantitativa da região subzigomática foi realizada através do programa GOM inspect® utilizado um mapa de cores e medições em 6 zonas na região da bochecha. Utilizou-se a Coeficiente de Spearman e o teste de Wilcoxon. Observou-se uma correlação negativa de baixa a moderada entre a quantidade de gordura removida e a alteração na zona facial 2 e 5 levando em consideração todas as hemifaces (p<0,028), revelando diferença estatisticamente significativa. O teste de Wilcoxon revelou diferença estatisticamente significativa em todas as zonas entre T0 e T1. O índice de acerto dos profissionais sobre T0 e T1 foi de 69,86%. A fotogrametria tridimensional conseguiu quantificar as alterações na região da bochecha após a lipectomia bucal, que apesar de milimétricas, foram perceptíveis por profissionais. A área subzigomática na zona 2 e 5 foi a região que mais diminui após a remoção do CAB (AU).

The purpose of this study was to identify whether there is a difference in the cheek region through three-dimensional photogrammetry after oral lipectomy, as well as to verify the perception of professionals regarding facial changes after the procedure. This is a quasiexperimental clinical trial on oral lipectomy. Fifteen patients were operated on, totaling 30 oral lipectomies. A photographic protocol for three-dimensional photogrammetry was performed in two operative stages, T0: preoperative and T1: 10 months postoperatively. The mouth opening, body mass, the amount of fat removed in grams and milliliters; and visual analogue pain scale, were collected. Through the Google® Form, dental specialists evaluated the photographs. The quantitative assessment of the subzygomatic region was performed using the GOM inspect® program, using a color map and measurements in 6 zones in the cheek region. Spearman's coefficient and the Wilcoxon test were used. A low to moderate negative correlation was observed between the amount of fat removed and the change in facial zone 2 and 5 taking into account all hemifaces (p <0.028), revealing a statistically significant difference. The Wilcoxon test revealed a statistically significant difference in all zones between T0 and T1. The professionals' success rate on T0 and T1 was 69.86%. Three-dimensional photogrammetry was able to quantify the changes in the cheek region after the oral lipectomy, which despite being millimetric, were perceived by professionals. The subzygomatic area in zones 2 and 5 was the region that decreased the most after CAB removal (AU).

Intra- and inter-rater reliability of a biophotogrammetric assessment protocol for preterm infants / Confiabilidade intra e interexaminador do protocolo de avaliação biofotogramétrica em prematuros

ABSTRACT Objective: To measure the intra- and inter-rater reliability of a biophotogrammetric assessment protocol for thoracoabdominal motion in preterm infants. Methods: This is an analytical cross-sectional study. Footage of 40 preterm infants was made in two views (lateral and anterior). The babies were placed in the supine position, with retroverted pelvis and semiflexed knees. Acrylic markers were positioned on surgical tape in eight predetermined anatomical points. We analyzed 4 variables in lateral view and 11 in anterior view (angular and linear) (ImageJ®), divided into two stages: 1. same frames - three blinded evaluators analyzed frames previously selected by the main researcher (inter-rater analysis 1), reviewing these same frames after 15 days (intra-rater analysis 1); 2. different frames - each evaluator selected the frames from the original video and repeated the protocol (inter-rater analysis 2), with a review after 15 days (intra-rater analysis 2). In stage 2, we tested the reliability of the entire process, from image selection to the analysis of variables. Data agreement and reproducibility were obtained by the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). Results: Agreement was high, particularly in angular variables (ICC 0.82 to 0.99). Linear variables ranged between very good and excellent in analysis 1 (same frames: ICC 0.64 to 0.99) and analysis 2 (different frames: ICC 0.44 to 0.89). Conclusions: The present study suggests that the proposed protocol for the thoracoabdominal motion analysis of preterm neonates has high reliability.

RESUMO Objetivo: Mensurar a confiabilidade intra e interexaminador de um protocolo de avaliação biofotogramétrica da mobilidade toracoabdominal de prematuros. Métodos: Estudo de caráter transversal e analítico. Incluíram-se filmagens de 40 prematuros em duas vistas (lateral e superior), realizadas em supino, pelve retrovertida e joelhos em semiflexão. Marcadores de acrílico foram posicionados sobre Micropores em oito pontos anatômicos predeterminados. Foram analisadas 4 variáveis na vista lateral e 11 na vista superior (angulares e lineares) (ImageJ®), divididas em duas etapas: (1-Frames iguais) análises de fotogramas previamente selecionados pela pesquisadora principal por três avaliadores cegos (análise interexaminador 1), com reanálise desses mesmos fotogramas após 15 dias (análise intraexaminador 1); (2-Frames diferentes) cada avaliador selecionou os fotogramas por meio do vídeo original e repetiu o protocolo (análise interexaminador 2), com reanálise após 15 dias (análise intraexaminador 2). Em (2), foi testada a confiabilidade de todo o processo de análise, desde a separação das imagens até a análise das variáveis. A concordância e reprodutibilidade dos dados foram obtidas pelo coeficiente de correlação intraclasse (CCI). Resultados: Houve concordância forte, com ênfase nas variáveis angulares (CCI [0,82 a 0,99]). As variáveis lineares apresentaram variação entre muito boa e excelente na análise 1 (frames iguais: CCI 0,64 a 0,99) e na análise 2 (frames diferentes: CCI entre 0,44 e 0,89). Conclusões: O presente estudo sugere forte confiabilidade do protocolo proposto para análise da movimentação toracoabdominal de neonatos prematuros.

INTRA- AND INTER-RATER RELIABILITY OF A BIOPHOTOGRAMMETRIC ASSESSMENT PROTOCOL FOR PRETERM INFANTS.

OBJECTIVE: To measure the intra- and inter-rater reliability of a biophotogrammetric assessment protocol for thoracoabdominal motion in preterm infants. METHODS: This is an analytical cross-sectional study. Footage of 40 preterm infants was made in two views (lateral and anterior). The babies were placed in the supine position, with retroverted pelvis and semiflexed knees. Acrylic markers were positioned on surgical tape in eight predetermined anatomical points. We analyzed 4 variables in lateral view and 11 in anterior view (angular and linear) (ImageJ®), divided into two stages: 1. same frames - three blinded evaluators analyzed frames previously selected by the main researcher (inter-rater analysis 1), reviewing these same frames after 15 days (intra-rater analysis 1); 2. different frames - each evaluator selected the frames from the original video and repeated the protocol (inter-rater analysis 2), with a review after 15 days (intra-rater analysis 2). In stage 2, we tested the reliability of the entire process, from image selection to the analysis of variables. Data agreement and reproducibility were obtained by the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). RESULTS: Agreement was high, particularly in angular variables (ICC 0.82 to 0.99). Linear variables ranged between very good and excellent in analysis 1 (same frames: ICC 0.64 to 0.99) and analysis 2 (different frames: ICC 0.44 to 0.89). CONCLUSIONS: The present study suggests that the proposed protocol for the thoracoabdominal motion analysis of preterm neonates has high reliability.

Comparison of facial esthetic standards between Latin American and Asian populations using 3D stereophotogrammetric analysis.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to compare the facial esthetic standards between Paraguayan and Korean beauty pageant contestants as well as to evaluate the deviation in Farkas proportion indexes (PI) from the golden ratio for each group using three-dimensional (3D) stereophotogrammetric analysis. METHODS: 3D soft tissue images of 34 Miss Paraguay (MP) and 54 Miss Korea (MK) pageant contestants were obtained. The 3D images were digitized and 52 measurements and ratios were calculated. One-way multivariate analysis of variance was applied to compare the two groups. One-sample t-test was applied to assess the differences between the PI of each group and the golden ratio. RESULTS: The MP group showed greater mouth width, total vermilion perimeter, and lower lip protrusion (P < 0.001) than the MK group. Meanwhile, the MK group showed longer forehead height and total facial height (P = 0.002 and P < 0.001, respectively). All Farkas PIs in each group showed significant differences from the golden ratio except for PI19 (upper/lower vermilion heights). CONCLUSIONS: Paraguayans favor rectangular faces with wide mouths and large lips, especially the lower lips, whereas Koreans prefer long tapered faces with small mouths and lips. All proportion indexes were significantly different from the golden ratio except for PI19. Therefore, it would be beneficial for clinicians to consider the differences in ethnic preferences in facial esthetics during diagnosis and treatment planning.

Recommendations for improving photo quality in close range photogrammetry, exemplified in hand bones of chimpanzees and gorillas / Recomendaciones para mejorar la calidad de las fotos en fotogrametría de corto alcance, ejemplificado en huesos de las manos de chimpancés y gorillas

SUMMARY: Photogrammetry is becoming increasingly popular in morphological research and teaching due to its portability, ability to reliably render 3D models, and quality-to-price relationship relative to some popular surface scanners. Compared to surface scanners, however, the learning process in photogrammetry can be very time consuming. Here we describe common mistakes of photo capture in close-range photogrammetry that greatly affect 3D output and tips to improve them. Problems were identified after the 3D model construction of 780 hand bones of chimpanzees and gorillas from museum collections. Their hands are composed of 27 bones which vary in length and complexity. We show how lighting, object position and orientation, camera angle, and background affect the 3D output. By taking these factors into account, time and error rates for beginners can be greatly reduced and 3D model quality can be considerably improved.

RESUMEN: La fotogrametría está siendo cada vez más popular en la investigación y enseñanza morfológica. Esto debido a su portabilidad, confiabilidad de los modelos 3D y buena relación calidadprecio. Comparada con los escáneres de superficie, sin embargo, el proceso de aprendizaje de la fotogrametría puede llevar mucho tiempo. Aquí se describen errores comunes en la toma de fotos para fotogrametería que afectan de manera importante la creación de los modelos 3D, así como consejos para superarlos. Los problemas descritos fueron identificados luego de la construcción de 780 modelos 3D de huesos de la mano de chimpancés y gorillas depositados en distintas colecciones de museos. Las manos de estas especies están compuestas por 27 huesos que varían en tamaño y complejidad. En este artículo mostramos como la luz, la posición y orientación del objeto, el ángulo de la cámara y el fondo de la imagen afectan el resultado en 3D. Considerando estos factores, personas que están aprendiendo esta técnica pueden reducir de manera importante el tiempo y la probabilidad de error, y mejorar considerablemente la calidad de los modelos 3D.

PHOTOGRAMMETRY: A PROPOSAL OF OBJECTIVE ASSESSMENT OF CHEST WALL IN ADOLESCENT IDIOPATHIC SCOLIOSIS.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the chest wall shape in patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) in comparison to healthy subjects and the association between the chest wall shape with the spine deformity and lung function in patients with AIS. METHODS: This cross-sectional study enrolled 30 AIS patients and 20 healthy subjects aged 11-18 years old. The Cobb angle evaluation was performed in AIS patients. The chest wall shape was assessed by the photogrammetry method, using the Postural Assessment Software (PAS). We created thoracic markers shaped as angles (A) and distances (D), as follows: A2 (right acromion/xiphoid/left acromion), A4L (angle formed between the outer point of the smallest waist circumference and its upper and lower edges on the left side), A7 (angle formed by the intersection of the tangent segments of the upper and lower scapulae angles), D1R/D1L [distance between the xiphoid process and the last false rib on the right (R) and left (L) sides], and D3 (distance between xiphoid process and anterior superior iliac spine). RESULTS: The thoracic markers A2 and A7 were significantly higher, while the A4L and D1R/D1L were significantly reduced in the AIS group compared to the control. Moderate correlations were found between: A2 and the main and proximal thoracic Cobb angles (r=0.50, r=0.47, respectively); D1R/D1L and the main thoracic Cobb angle (r=- 0.40); and the forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV1) and D3R (r=0.47). CONCLUSIONS: The photogrammetry method was able to detect chest wall changes in AIS patients, besides presenting correlation between Cobb angles and lung function.

Photogrammetry: a proposal of objective assessment of chest wall in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis / Fotogrametria: uma proposta de avaliação objetiva da caixa torácica na escoliose idiopática do adolescente

ABSTRACT Objective: To evaluate the chest wall shape in patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) in comparison to healthy subjects and the association between the chest wall shape with the spine deformity and lung function in patients with AIS. Methods: This cross-sectional study enrolled 30 AIS patients and 20 healthy subjects aged 11-18 years old. The Cobb angle evaluation was performed in AIS patients. The chest wall shape was assessed by the photogrammetry method, using the Postural Assessment Software (PAS). We created thoracic markers shaped as angles (A) and distances (D), as follows: A2 (right acromion/xiphoid/left acromion), A4L (angle formed between the outer point of the smallest waist circumference and its upper and lower edges on the left side), A7 (angle formed by the intersection of the tangent segments of the upper and lower scapulae angles), D1R/D1L [distance between the xiphoid process and the last false rib on the right (R) and left (L) sides], and D3 (distance between xiphoid process and anterior superior iliac spine). Results: The thoracic markers A2 and A7 were significantly higher, while the A4L and D1R/D1L were significantly reduced in the AIS group compared to the control. Moderate correlations were found between: A2 and the main and proximal thoracic Cobb angles (r=0.50, r=0.47, respectively); D1R/D1L and the main thoracic Cobb angle (r=- 0.40); and the forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV1) and D3R (r=0.47). Conclusions: The photogrammetry method was able to detect chest wall changes in AIS patients, besides presenting correlation between Cobb angles and lung function.

RESUMO Objetivo: Avaliar o formato da caixa torácica em pacientes com escoliose idiopática do adolescente (EIA), comparando-os com indivíduos saudáveis e analisar a associação do formato da caixa torácica com a deformidade da coluna vertebral e função pulmonar em pacientes com EIA. Métodos: Estudo transversal que avaliou 30 pacientes com EIA e 20 indivíduos saudáveis com idade entre 11 e 18 anos. O ângulo de Cobb foi avaliado em pacientes com EIA. O formato da caixa torácica foi analisado pelo método da fotogrametria, utilizando o Software para Avaliação Postural (SAPO). Foram criados marcadores torácicos descritos como ângulos (A)e distâncias (D): A2 (acrômio direito/processo xifoide/acrômio esquerdo), A4E (ângulo formado entre o ponto externo da menor circunferência da cintura e suas bordas superior e inferior do lado esquerdo), A7 (ângulo formado pela interseção das retas tangentes aos ângulos superior e inferior das escápulas), D1D/D1E [distância entre o processo xifoide e a última costela falsa nos lados direito (D) e esquerdo (E)] e D3 (distância entre o processo xifoide e a espinha ilíaca anterossuperior). Resultados: Os marcadores torácicos A2 e A7 foram significativamente maiores, enquanto o A4E e o D1D/D1E foram significativamente menores no grupo EIA em relação ao controle. Foram encontradas correlações moderadas entre: A2 e os ângulos de Cobb torácico principal e proximal (r=0,50 e r=0,47, respectivamente); D1D/D1E e o ângulo de Cobb torácico principal (r=-0,40); e o volume expiratório forçado no primeiro segundo (VEF1) e D3D (r=0,47). Conclusões: O método da fotogrametria detectou alterações na caixa torácica de pacientes com EIA, além de apresentar correlações significativas entre os ângulos de Cobb e a função pulmonar.

Non-ionizing method of screening adolescent idiopathic scoliosis in schoolchildren. / Método não ionizante de rastreamento da escoliose idiopática do adolescente em escolares.

Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) affects 2% to 4% of young people in Brazil. Repeated exposures to radiation used in the monitoring of the deformity can be harmful to the health. This study aimed to present a photogrammetry protocol as a non-ionizing method to quantify scoliosis and relate it to the Cobb radiological method. Sixteen individuals with idiopathic scoliosis (age: 21.4 ± 6.1 years, body mass index: 19.8 ± 0.2 kg/m2) underwent standing posteroanterior X-ray examination of the trunk. Additionally, markers were placed on the spinal processes of the C7 to L5 vertebrae, and posterior trunk photographs were taken. All images were sent for independent analysis by two examiners who were trained in the quantification of scoliosis. The average of the thoracic curvature evaluated through the photogrammetry and Cobb methods were 36.43° and 36.14°, respectively. With an average difference of 4.1°, the methods were not statistically different (p < 0.05). As a non-ionizing method that is low cost and portable, photogrammetry may represent a suitable alternative to the radiological method. Further studies are needed for the improvement of non-ionizing techniques in AIS screening.

Escoliose idiopática do adolescente (EIA) atinge de 2% a 4% de jovens no Brasil. Repetidas exposições aos exames radiológicos, no acompanhamento desta deformidade, podem ser danosos à saúde. O objetivo deste estudo é apresentar um protocolo de fotogrametria, como método não ionizante para quantificação da escoliose, e relacioná-lo ao método radiológico de Cobb. Dezesseis indivíduos portadores de escoliose idiopática (21,4 ± 6,1 anos de idade e 19,8±0,2 de índice de massa corporal) foram submetidos à radiografia posteroanterior do tronco, de pé e, posteriormente, fotografia do tronco posterior, após receberem marcadores anatômicos nos processos espinhosos das vértebras C7 até L5. As imagens foram encaminhadas para análise independente de dois examinadores treinados na quantificação da escoliose para o tipo de imagem recebida. A média angular torácica de Cobb e de fotogrametria foram 36,14° e 36,43°, respectivamente. A diferença média entre os métodos foi de 4,1°. Não houve diferença estatisticamente significante (p-valor < 5%) entre eles. A fotogrametria, por ser não ionizante, ter baixo custo e ser portátil, poderá representar uma alternativa ao método radiológico. Novos estudos são necessários no aprimoramento das técnicas não ionizantes no rastreamento da EIA.

Three-Dimensional Soft-Tissue Facial Morphometry in Caucasian Obese Adults

Objective: To evaluate the facial morphology of Caucasian obese adults in relation to normal weight peers, and to study the association between three-dimensional soft-tissue facial measurements and cardiometabolic risk factors. Material and Methods: Nineteen Caucasian obese subjects aged 25 to 73 years underwent anthropometric measurements, blood samples and a stereophotogrammetric facial scan. Soft-tissue facial linear distances, angles, and volumes were obtained and compared to those collected on normal weight subjects by computing z-scores. Spearman correlation was used to assess the associations between facial measurements and metabolic parameters. Logistic regression analysis adjusted for sex and age was used to assess the risk of metabolic syndrome associated to the facial measurements. Results: Overall, when compared to normal weight persons, obese adults had a wider face in the horizontal dimension, with a middle face (maxilla) that was larger both in absolute value and relatively to the lower face (mandible), and a larger right side gonial angle (Wilcoxon test, p < 0.01). Only the mean (left and right) gonial angle was positively associated to serum triglycerides level, while the other facial measurements were associated with none of the cardiometabolic parameters. Moreover, none of the facial measurements was associated with the risk of metabolic syndrome. Conclusion: Despite larger facial dimensions and altered mandible/maxilla volume ratio, three-dimensional soft-tissue facial morphometry in Caucasian obese adults is not related to cardiometabolic risk factors. The actual association between morphological facial characteristics and clinical information on the health conditions of patients is still to be investigated.

Método não ionizante de rastreamento da escoliose idiopática do adolescente em escolares / Non-ionizing method of screening adolescent idiopathic scoliosis in schoolchildren

Resumo Escoliose idiopática do adolescente (EIA) atinge de 2% a 4% de jovens no Brasil. Repetidas exposições aos exames radiológicos, no acompanhamento desta deformidade, podem ser danosos à saúde. O objetivo deste estudo é apresentar um protocolo de fotogrametria, como método não ionizante para quantificação da escoliose, e relacioná-lo ao método radiológico de Cobb. Dezesseis indivíduos portadores de escoliose idiopática (21,4 ± 6,1 anos de idade e 19,8±0,2 de índice de massa corporal) foram submetidos à radiografia posteroanterior do tronco, de pé e, posteriormente, fotografia do tronco posterior, após receberem marcadores anatômicos nos processos espinhosos das vértebras C7 até L5. As imagens foram encaminhadas para análise independente de dois examinadores treinados na quantificação da escoliose para o tipo de imagem recebida. A média angular torácica de Cobb e de fotogrametria foram 36,14° e 36,43°, respectivamente. A diferença média entre os métodos foi de 4,1°. Não houve diferença estatisticamente significante (p-valor < 5%) entre eles. A fotogrametria, por ser não ionizante, ter baixo custo e ser portátil, poderá representar uma alternativa ao método radiológico. Novos estudos são necessários no aprimoramento das técnicas não ionizantes no rastreamento da EIA.

Abstract Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) affects 2% to 4% of young people in Brazil. Repeated exposures to radiation used in the monitoring of the deformity can be harmful to the health. This study aimed to present a photogrammetry protocol as a non-ionizing method to quantify scoliosis and relate it to the Cobb radiological method. Sixteen individuals with idiopathic scoliosis (age: 21.4 ± 6.1 years, body mass index: 19.8 ± 0.2 kg/m2) underwent standing posteroanterior X-ray examination of the trunk. Additionally, markers were placed on the spinal processes of the C7 to L5 vertebrae, and posterior trunk photographs were taken. All images were sent for independent analysis by two examiners who were trained in the quantification of scoliosis. The average of the thoracic curvature evaluated through the photogrammetry and Cobb methods were 36.43° and 36.14°, respectively. With an average difference of 4.1°, the methods were not statistically different (p < 0.05). As a non-ionizing method that is low cost and portable, photogrammetry may represent a suitable alternative to the radiological method. Further studies are needed for the improvement of non-ionizing techniques in AIS screening.