Extracellular vesicles engineered to bind albumin demonstrate extended circulation time and lymph node accumulation in mouse models.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have shown promise as potential therapeutics for the treatment of various diseases. However, their rapid clearance after administration could be a limitation in certain therapeutic settings. To solve this, an engineering strategy is employed to decorate albumin onto the surface of the EVs through surface display of albumin binding domains (ABDs). ABDs were either included in the extracellular loops of select EV-enriched tetraspanins (CD63, CD9 and CD81) or directly fused to the extracellular terminal of single transmembrane EV-sorting domains, such as Lamp2B. These engineered EVs exert robust binding capacity to human serum albumins (HSA) in vitro and mouse serum albumins (MSA) after injection in mice. By binding to MSA, circulating time of EVs dramatically increases after different routes of injection in different strains of mice. Moreover, these engineered EVs show considerable lymph node (LN) and solid tumour accumulation, which can be utilized when using EVs for immunomodulation, cancer- and/or immunotherapy. The increased circulation time of EVs may also be important when combined with tissue-specific targeting ligands and could provide significant benefit for their therapeutic use in a variety of disease indications.

The kidney injury caused by the onset of acute graft-versus-host disease is associated with down-regulation of αKlotho.

Acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD) and kidney injury are the major complications after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Although the underlying mechanisms for the development of these complications are not yet fully understood, it has been proposed that emergence of aGVHD contributes to the development of kidney injury after HSCT. We have shown previously that aGVHD targets the kidney in a biphasic manner: at the onset, inflammatory genes are up-regulated, while when aGVHD becomes established, donor lymphocytes infiltrate the kidney. Here, we characterize renal manifestations at the onset of aGVHD. Mice receiving allogeneic bone marrow and spleen cells displayed symptoms of aGVHD and elevated serum levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) within 4 days. There was concurrent kidney injury with the following characteristics: (1) elevated expression of the kidney injury biomarker, neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), (2) accumulation of hetero-lysosomes in proximal tubule epithelial cells, and (3) reductions in αKlotho mRNA and protein and increased serum levels of fibroblast growth factor 23 (Fgf23), phosphate and urea. This situation resembled acute renal injury caused by bacterial lipopolysaccharide. We conclude that the onset of aGVHD is associated with kidney injury involving down-regulation of αKlotho, a sight that may inspire novel therapeutic approaches.

The Use of Mathematical Modelling for Improving the Tissue Engineering of Organs and Stem Cell Therapy.

Regenerative medicine is a multidisciplinary field where continued progress relies on the incorporation of a diverse set of technologies from a wide range of disciplines within medicine, science and engineering. This review describes how one such technique, mathematical modelling, can be utilised to improve the tissue engineering of organs and stem cell therapy. Several case studies, taken from research carried out by our group, ACTREM, demonstrate the utility of mechanistic mathematical models to help aid the design and optimisation of protocols in regenerative medicine.

The kidney is the principal organ mediating klotho effects.

Klotho was discovered as an antiaging gene, and α-Klotho (Klotho) is expressed in multiple tissues with a broad set of biologic functions. Membrane-bound Klotho binds fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23), but a soluble form of Klotho is also produced by alternative splicing or cleavage of the extracellular domain of the membrane-bound protein. The relative organ-specific contributions to the levels and effects of circulating Klotho remain unknown. We explored these issues by generating a novel mouse strain with Klotho deleted throughout the nephron (Six2-KL(-/-)). Klotho shedding from Six2-KL(-/-) kidney explants was undetectable and the serum Klotho level was reduced by approximately 80% in Six2-KL(-/-) mice compared with wild-type littermates. Six2-KL(-/-) mice exhibited severe growth retardation, kyphosis, and premature death, closely resembling the phenotype of systemic Klotho knockout mice. Notable biochemical changes included hyperphosphatemia, hypercalcemia, hyperaldosteronism, and elevated levels of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D and Fgf23, consistent with disrupted renal Fgf23 signaling. Kidney histology demonstrated interstitial fibrosis and nephrocalcinosis in addition to absent dimorphic tubules. A direct comparative analysis between Six2-KL(-/-) and systemic Klotho knockout mice supports extensive, yet indistinguishable, extrarenal organ manifestations. Thus, our data reveal the kidney as the principal contributor of circulating Klotho and Klotho-induced antiaging traits.

Parathyroid-specific deletion of Klotho unravels a novel calcineurin-dependent FGF23 signaling pathway that regulates PTH secretion.

Klotho acts as a co-receptor for and dictates tissue specificity of circulating FGF23. FGF23 inhibits PTH secretion, and reduced Klotho abundance is considered a pathogenic factor in renal secondary hyperparathyroidism. To dissect the role of parathyroid gland resident Klotho in health and disease, we generated mice with a parathyroid-specific Klotho deletion (PTH-KL(-/-)). PTH-KL(-/-) mice had a normal gross phenotype and survival; normal serum PTH and calcium; unaltered expression of the PTH gene in parathyroid tissue; and preserved PTH response and sensitivity to acute changes in serum calcium. Their PTH response to intravenous FGF23 delivery or renal failure did not differ compared to their wild-type littermates despite disrupted FGF23-induced activation of the MAPK/ERK pathway. Importantly, calcineurin-NFAT signaling, defined by increased MCIP1 level and nuclear localization of NFATC2, was constitutively activated in PTH-KL(-/-) mice. Treatment with the calcineurin-inhibitor cyclosporine A abolished FGF23-mediated PTH suppression in PTH-KL(-/-) mice whereas wild-type mice remained responsive. Similar results were observed in thyro-parathyroid explants ex vivo. Collectively, we present genetic and functional evidence for a novel, Klotho-independent, calcineurin-mediated FGF23 signaling pathway in parathyroid glands that mediates suppression of PTH. The presence of Klotho-independent FGF23 effects in a Klotho-expressing target organ represents a paradigm shift in the conceptualization of FGF23 endocrine action.

The mTOR effectors 4EBP1 and S6K2 are frequently coexpressed, and associated with a poor prognosis and endocrine resistance in breast cancer: a retrospective study including patients from the randomised Stockholm tamoxifen trials.

INTRODUCTION: mTOR and its downstream effectors the 4E-binding protein 1 (4EBP1) and the p70 ribosomal S6 kinases (S6K1 and S6K2) are frequently upregulated in breast cancer, and assumed to be driving forces in tumourigenesis, in close connection with oestrogen receptor (ER) networks. Here, we investigated these factors as clinical markers in five different cohorts of breast cancer patients. METHODS: The prognostic significance of 4EBP1, S6K1 and S6K2 mRNA expression was assessed with real-time PCR in 93 tumours from the treatment randomised Stockholm trials, encompassing postmenopausal patients enrolled between 1976 and 1990. Three publicly available breast cancer cohorts were used to confirm the results. Furthermore, the predictive values of 4EBP1 and p4EBP1_S65 protein expression for both prognosis and endocrine treatment benefit were assessed by immunohistochemical analysis of 912 node-negative breast cancers from the Stockholm trials. RESULTS: S6K2 and 4EBP1 mRNA expression levels showed significant correlation and were associated with a poor outcome in all cohorts investigated. 4EBP1 protein was confirmed as an independent prognostic factor, especially in progesterone receptor (PgR)-expressing cancers. 4EBP1 protein expression was also associated with a poor response to endocrine treatment in the ER/PgR positive group. Cross-talk to genomic as well as non-genomic ER/PgR signalling may be involved and the results further support a combination of ER and mTOR signalling targeted therapies. CONCLUSION: This study suggests S6K2 and 4EBP1 as important factors for breast tumourigenesis, interplaying with hormone receptor signalling. We propose S6K2 and 4EBP1 as new potential clinical markers for prognosis and endocrine therapy response in breast cancer.

Global differences in specific histone H3 methylation are associated with overweight and type 2 diabetes.

BACKGROUND: Epidemiological evidence indicates yet unknown epigenetic mechanisms underlying a propensity for overweight and type 2 diabetes. We analyzed the extent of methylation at lysine 4 and lysine 9 of histone H3 in primary human adipocytes from 43 subjects using modification-specific antibodies. RESULTS: The level of lysine 9 dimethylation was stable, while adipocytes from type 2 diabetic and non-diabetic overweight subjects exhibited about 40% lower levels of lysine 4 dimethylation compared with cells from normal-weight subjects. In contrast, trimethylation at lysine 4 was 40% higher in adipocytes from overweight diabetic subjects compared with normal-weight and overweight non-diabetic subjects. There was no association between level of modification and age of subjects. CONCLUSIONS: The findings define genome-wide molecular modifications of histones in adipocytes that are directly associated with overweight and diabetes, and thus suggest a molecular basis for existing epidemiological evidence of epigenetic inheritance.

A novel model of adenine-induced tubulointerstitial nephropathy in mice.

BACKGROUND: In vivo models of uremia are important tools to study numerous aspects of acute and chronic kidney disease. Mouse models are pivotal because most genetically engineered animal models are mice, which allow dissecting the impact of selected target genes in renal failure. Adenine-based protocols to induce renal failure are available in rats, but have not been adapted in mice due to their reluctance to consume adenine. In the current paper we developed a novel method for induction of renal failure through dietary delivery of adenine mixed in a casein-based diet. RESULTS: After an induction phase, a stable model of renal impairment was obtained (target urea range 80-100 mg/dL), mimicking several aspects of chronic kidney disease - mineral and bone disorder including secondary hyperparathyroidism, bone abnormalities and pathological elevation of FGF23. No deaths occurred and the level of uremia was adaptable through adjustments of the adenine content, providing significant advantages compared to existing models. In an 8-week proof-of-concept study, renal histology showed mainly a tubulointerstitial damage with infiltrating leukocytes, interstitial edema and widening of the Bownman's space. Fibrosis was present in most animals as defined by histology and gene expression changes of fibrosis markers. Parathyroid cell proliferation was markedly increased but without signs of glandular hypertrophy. Skeletal histology showed increased trabecular bone and bone marrow adiposity whereas bone biomarkers (CTX and PINP) suggested higher bone formation, but surprisingly, lower bone resorption and perturbations in mineral metabolism. CONCLUSIONS: We present a novel, non-surgical method for induction of renal failure in mice. This is an important complement to existing uremic models for pathophysiological studies in acute and chronic kidney disease, especially in terms of tubulointerstitial lesions.

Arterial klotho expression and FGF23 effects on vascular calcification and function.

Recent studies support a role for FGF23 and its co-receptor Klotho in cardiovascular pathology, yet the underlying mechanisms remain largely elusive. Herein, we analyzed the expression of Klotho in mouse arteries and generated a novel mouse model harboring a vascular smooth muscle cell specific deletion of Klotho (Sm22-KL(-/-) ). Arterial Klotho expression was detected at very low levels with quantitative real-time PCR; Klotho protein levels were undetectable by immunohistochemistry and Western blot. There was no difference in arterial Klotho between Sm22-KL(-/-) and wild-type mice, as well as no changes in serum markers of mineral metabolism. Intravenous delivery of FGF23 elicited a rise in renal (0.005; p<0.01) but not arterial Egr-1 expression, a marker of Klotho-dependent FGF23 signaling. Further, the impact of FGF23 on vascular calcification and endothelial response was evaluated in bovine vascular smooth muscle cells (bVSMC) and in a murine ex vivo model of endothelial function, respectively. FGF23 treatment (0.125-2 ng/mL) did not modify calcification in bVSMCs or dilatory, contractile and structural properties in mice arterial specimen ex vivo. Collectively, these results demonstrate that FGF23-Klotho signaling is absent in mouse arteries and that the vascular response was unaffected by FGF23 treatment. Thus, our data do not support Klotho-mediated FGF23 effects in the vasculature although confirmative studies in humans are warranted.

Targeted deletion of Klotho in kidney distal tubule disrupts mineral metabolism.

Renal Klotho controls mineral metabolism by directly modulating tubular reabsorption of phosphate and calcium and by acting as a co-receptor for the phosphaturic and vitamin D-regulating hormone fibroblast growth factor-23 (FGF23). Klotho null mice have a markedly abnormal phenotype. We sought to determine effects of renal-specific and partial deletion of Klotho to facilitate investigation of its roles in health and disease. We generated a mouse model with partial deletion of Klotho in distal tubular segments (Ksp-KL(-/-)). In contrast to Klotho null mice, Ksp-KL(-/-) mice were fertile, had a normal gross phenotype, and did not have vascular or tubular calcification on renal histology. However, Ksp-KL(-/-) mice were hyperphosphatemic with elevated FGF23 levels and abundant expression of the sodium-phosphate cotransporter Npt2a at the brush border membrane. Serum calcium and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) levels were normal but parathyroid hormone levels were decreased. TRPV5 protein was reduced with a parallel mild increase in urinary calcium excretion. Renal expression of vitamin D regulatory enzymes and vitamin D receptor was higher in Ksp-KL(-/-) mice than controls, suggesting increased turnover of vitamin D metabolites and a functional increase in vitamin D signaling. There was a threshold effect of residual renal Klotho expression on FGF23: deletion of >70% of Klotho resulted in FGF23 levels 30-250 times higher than in wild-type mice. A subgroup of Ksp-KL(-/-) mice with normal phosphate levels had elevated FGF23, suggesting a Klotho-derived renal-bone feedback loop. Taken together, renal FGF23-Klotho signaling, which is disrupted in CKD, is essential for homeostatic control of mineral metabolism.