Mechanical and morphological properties of parietal bone in patients with sagittal craniosynostosis.

Limited information is available on the effect of sagittal craniosynostosis (CS) on morphological and material properties of the parietal bone. Understanding these properties would not only provide an insight into bone response to surgical procedures but also improve the accuracy of computational models simulating these surgeries. The aim of the present study was to characterise the mechanical and microstructural properties of the cortical table and diploe in parietal bone of patients affected by sagittal CS. Twelve samples were collected from pediatric patients (11 males, and 1 female; age 5.2 ± 1.3 months) surgically treated for sagittal CS. Samples were imaged using micro-computed tomography (micro-CT); and mechanical properties were extracted by means of micro-CT based finite element modelling (micro-FE) of three-point bending test, calibrated using sample-specific experimental data. Reference point indentation (RPI) was used to validate the micro-FE output. Bone samples were classified based on their macrostructure as unilaminar or trilaminar (sandwich) structure. The elastic moduli obtained using RPI and micro-FE approaches for cortical tables (ERPI 3973.33 ± 268.45 MPa and Emicro-FE 3438.11 ± 387.38 MPa) in the sandwich structure and diploe (ERPI1958.17 ± 563.79 MPa and Emicro-FE 1960.66 ± 492.44 MPa) in unilaminar samples were in strong agreement (r = 0.86, p < .01). We found that the elastic modulus of cortical tables and diploe were correlated with bone mineral density. Changes in the microstructure and mechanical properties of bone specimens were found to be irrespective of patients' age. Although younger patients are reported to benefit more from surgical intervention as skull is more malleable, understanding the material properties is critical to better predict the surgical outcome in patients <1 year old since age-related changes were minimal.

Three-Dimensional Calvarial Growth in Spring-Assisted Cranioplasty for Correction of Sagittal Synostosis.

Spring-assisted cranioplasty (SAC) is a minimally invasive technique for treating sagittal synostosis in young infants. Yet, follow-up data on cranial growth in patients who have undergone SAC are lacking. This project aimed to understand how the cranial shape develops during the postoperative period, from spring insertion to removal. 3D head scans of 30 consecutive infants undergoing SAC for sagittal synostosis were acquired using a handheld scanner pre-operatively, immediately postoperatively, at follow-up and at spring removal; 3D scans of 41 age-matched control subjects were also acquired. Measurements of head length, width, height, circumference, and volume were taken for all subjects; cephalic index (CI) was calculated. Statistical shape modeling was used to compute 3D average head models of sagittal patients at the different time points. SAC was performed at a mean age of 5.2 months (range 3.3-8.0) and springs were removed 4.3 months later. CI increased significantly (P < 0.001) from pre-op (69.5% ±â€Š2.8%) to spring removal (74.4% ±â€Š3.9%), mainly due to the widening of head width, which became as wide as for age-matched controls; however, the CI of controls was not reached (82.3% ±â€Š6.8%). The springs did not constrain volume changes and allowed for natural growth. Population mean shapes showed that the bony prominences seen at the sites of spring engagement settle over time, and that springs affect the overall 3D head shape of the skull. In conclusion, results reaffirmed the effectiveness of SAC as a treatment method for nonsyndromic single suture sagittal synostosis.

Spring-Assisted Cranioplasty for the Correction of Nonsyndromic Scaphocephaly: A Quantitative Analysis of 100 Consecutive Cases.

BACKGROUND: Spring-assisted cranioplasty has been proposed as an alternative to total calvarial remodeling for sagittal craniosynostosis. Advantages include its minimally invasive nature, and reduced morbidity and hospital stay. Potential drawbacks include the need for a second procedure for removal and the lack of published long-term follow-up. The authors present a single-institution experience of 100 consecutive cases using a novel spring design. METHODS: All patients treated at the authors' institution between April of 2010 and September of 2014 were evaluated retrospectively. Patients with isolated nonsyndromic sagittal craniosynostosis were included. Data were collected for operative time, anesthetic time, hospital stay, transfusion requirement, and complications in addition to cephalic index preoperatively and at 1 day, 3 weeks, and 6 months postoperatively. RESULTS: One hundred patients were included. Mean cephalic index was 68 preoperatively, 71 at day 1, and 72 at 3 weeks and 6 months postoperatively. Nine patients required transfusion. Two patients developed a cerebrospinal fluid leak requiring intervention. One patient required early removal of springs because of infection. One patient had a wound dehiscence over the spring and one patient sustained a venous infarct with hemiplegia. Five patients required further calvarial remodeling surgery. CONCLUSIONS: The authors' modified spring design and protocol represents an effective strategy in the management of single-suture sagittal craniosynostosis with reduced total operative time and blood loss compared with alternative treatment strategies. In patients referred within the first 6 months of birth, this technique has become the authors' procedure of choice. In a minority of cases, especially in the older age groups, further remodeling surgery is required. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, IV.

Quantifying the effect of corrective surgery for trigonocephaly: A non-invasive, non-ionizing method using three-dimensional handheld scanning and statistical shape modelling.

Trigonocephaly in patients with metopic synostosis is corrected by fronto-orbital remodelling (FOR). The aim of this study was to quantitatively assess aesthetic outcomes of FOR by capturing 3D forehead scans of metopic patients pre- and post-operatively and comparing them with controls. Ten single-suture metopic patients undergoing FOR and 15 age-matched non-craniosynostotic controls were recruited at Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children (UK). Scans were acquired with a three-dimensional (3D) handheld camera and post-processed combining 3D imaging software. 3D scans were first used for cephalometric measurements. Statistical shape modelling was then used to compute the 3D mean head shapes of the three groups (FOR pre-op, post-op and controls). Head shape variations were described via principal component analysis (PCA). Cephalometric measurements showed that FOR significantly increased the forehead volume and improved trigonocephaly. This improvement was supported visually by pre- and post-operative computed mean 3D shapes and numerically by PCA (p < 0.001). Compared with controls, post-operative scans showed flatter foreheads (p < 0.001). In conclusion, 3D scanning followed by 3D statistical shape modelling enabled the 3D comparison of forehead shapes of metopic patients and non-craniosynostotic controls, and demonstrated that the adopted FOR technique was successful in correcting bitemporal narrowing but overcorrected the rounding of the forehead.

Comparison of three-dimensional scanner systems for craniomaxillofacial imaging.

Two-dimensional photographs are the standard for assessing craniofacial surgery clinical outcomes despite lacking three-dimensional (3D) depth and shape. Therefore, 3D scanners have been gaining popularity in various fields of plastic and reconstructive surgery, including craniomaxillofacial surgery. Head shapes of eight adult volunteers were acquired using four 3D scanners: 1.5T Avanto MRI, Siemens; 3dMDface System, 3dMD Inc.; M4D Scan, Rodin4D; and Structure Sensor, Occipital Inc. Accuracy was evaluated as percentage of data within a range of 2 mm from the 3DMDface System reconstruction, by surface-to-surface root mean square (RMS) distances, and with facial distance maps. Precision was determined by RMS. Relative to the 3dMDface System, accuracy was the highest for M4D Scan (90% within 2 mm; RMS of 0.71 mm ± 0.28 mm), followed by Avanto MRI (86%; 1.11 mm ± 0.33 mm) and Structure Sensor (80%; 1.33 mm ± 0.46). M4D Scan and Structure Sensor precision were 0.50 ± 0.04 mm and 0.51 ± 0.03 mm, respectively. Clinical and technical requirements govern scanner choice; however, 3dMDface System and M4D Scan provide high-quality results. It is foreseeable that compact, handheld systems will become more popular in the near future.

Evaluating the Efficacy of Monobloc Distraction in the Crouzon-Pfeiffer Craniofacial Deformity Using Geometric Morphometrics.

BACKGROUND: Crouzon-Pfeiffer syndrome is caused by mutations predominantly in the FGFR2 gene leading to syndromic craniosynostosis and midfacial hypoplasia. Monobloc distraction aims to correct both functional and aesthetic disharmony as a result of midfacial hypoplasia. This study evaluates the corrective effects and effectiveness of monobloc distraction in Crouzon-Pfeiffer patients. METHODS: Preoperative and postoperative scans were collected from 20 Crouzon and two Pfeiffer patients aged 7 to 20 years. Fifty-six normal skulls were used as a control group. Geometric morphometrics using 52 frontofacial landmarks were used to analyze the normal skull and preoperative and postoperative patient skulls. Color maps were created to visualize differences among the average normal, preoperative, and postoperative Crouzon-Pfeiffer patients. RESULTS: In the studied patient population, monobloc distraction with the use of an external distractor advanced the upper half of the midface more than the lower half of the midface. There was an anteroinferior rotation in the monobloc segment. The zygomatic arch length improved on average to 88 and 90 percent of normal (right and left, respectively), whereas globe protrusion was corrected from 134 percent to 84 percent and from 131 percent to 87 percent of normal (right and left, respectively) in the studied patient population. Compared with a normal skull, the maxillary region remained retruded. CONCLUSIONS: The advancement achieved by monobloc distraction is effective in the upper half of the midface; the lower half of the midface is advanced but remains retruded in comparison with the normal population. The midface is rotated anteroinferiorly. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, IV.

Three-Dimensional Handheld Scanning to Quantify Head-Shape Changes in Spring-Assisted Surgery for Sagittal Craniosynostosis.

Three-dimensional (3D) imaging is an important tool for diagnostics, surgical planning, and evaluation of surgical outcomes in craniofacial procedures. Gold standard for acquiring 3D imaging is computed tomography that entails ionizing radiations and, in young children, a general anaesthesia. Three-dimensional photographic imaging is an alternative method to assess patients who have undergone calvarial reconstructive surgery. The aim of this study was to assess the utility of 3D handheld scanning photography in a cohort of patients who underwent spring-assisted correction surgery for scaphocephaly. Pre- and postoperative 3D scans acquired in theater and at the 3-week follow-up in clinic were postprocessed for 9 patients. Cephalic index (CI), head circumference, volume, sagittal length, and coronal width over the head at pre-op, post-op, and follow-up were measured from the 3D scans. Cephalic index from 3D scans was compared with measurements from planar x-rays. Statistical shape modeling (SSM) was used to calculate the 3D mean anatomical head shape of the 9 patients at the pre-op, post-op, and follow-up. No significant differences were observed in the CI between 3D and x-ray. Cephalic index, volume, and coronal width increased significantly over time. Mean shapes from SSM visualized the overall and regional 3D changes due to the expansion of the springs in situ. Three-dimensional handheld scanning followed by SSM proved to be an efficacious and practical method to evaluate 3D shape outcomes after spring-assisted cranioplasty in individual patients and the population.

Describing Crouzon and Pfeiffer syndrome based on principal component analysis.

UNLABELLED: Crouzon and Pfeiffer syndrome are syndromic craniosynostosis caused by specific mutations in the FGFR genes. Patients share the characteristics of a tall, flattened forehead, exorbitism, hypertelorism, maxillary hypoplasia and mandibular prognathism. Geometric morphometrics allows the identification of the global shape changes within and between the normal and syndromic population. METHODS: Data from 27 Crouzon-Pfeiffer and 33 normal subjects were landmarked in order to compare both populations. With principal component analysis the variation within both groups was visualized and the vector of change was calculated. This model normalized a Crouzon-Pfeiffer skull and was compared to age-matched normative control data. RESULTS: PCA defined a vector that described the shape changes between both populations. Movies showed how the normal skull transformed into a Crouzon-Pfeiffer phenotype and vice versa. Comparing these results to established age-matched normal control data confirmed that our model could normalize a Crouzon-Pfeiffer skull. CONCLUSIONS: PCA was able to describe deformities associated with Crouzon-Pfeiffer syndrome and is a promising method to analyse variability in syndromic craniosynostosis. The virtual normalization of a Crouzon-Pfeiffer skull is useful to delineate the phenotypic changes required for correction, can help surgeons plan reconstructive surgery and is a potentially promising surgical outcome measure.