Self-compassion Buffers Impaired Decision-Making by Potential Problem Gamblers in a Casino Setting.

Self-compassionate individuals treat themselves kindly when undergoing stress. The present study examined self-compassion's relationship to risky decision-making on a gambling task by 240 problem and non-problem gamblers who were tested in a casino setting. Multi-level modeling analyses showed that participants expressed differential rates of learning to avoid risks on the gambling task, depending on their status as potential problem/non-problem gamblers and their level of self-compassion. Among potential problem gamblers, participants higher in self-compassion showed significant gains in performance over decision-making trials, which approximated those of non-problem gamblers and adults without impairments in the population. In contrast, potential problem gamblers lower in self-compassion showed chance levels of performance, which approximated those of adults with impairments. In some circumstances, self-compassion can disinhibit individuals from taking greater risks. For potential problem gamblers in a casino setting, however, the benefits of self-compassion as a means to reinforce self-control appear to outweigh the risks.

Testing the dualistic model of passion using a novel quadripartite approach: A look at physical and psychological well-being.

OBJECTIVE: Passion research has focused extensively on the unique effects of both harmonious passion and obsessive passion (Vallerand, 2015). We adopted a quadripartite approach (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010) to test whether physical and psychological well-being are distinctly related to subtypes of passion with varying within-person passion combinations: pure harmonious passion, pure obsessive passion, mixed passion, and non-passion. METHOD: In four studies (total N = 3,122), we tested whether passion subtypes were differentially associated with self-reported general health (Study 1; N = 1,218 undergraduates), health symptoms in video gamers (Study 2; N = 269 video game players), global psychological well-being (Study 3; N = 1,192 undergraduates), and academic burnout (Study 4; N = 443 undergraduates) using latent moderated structural equation modeling. RESULTS: Pure harmonious passion was generally associated with more positive levels of physical health and psychological well-being compared to pure obsessive passion, mixed passion, and non-passion. In contrast, outcomes were more negative for pure obsessive passion compared to both mixed passion and non-passion subtypes. CONCLUSIONS: This research underscores the theoretical and empirical usefulness of a quadripartite approach for the study of passion. Overall, the results demonstrate the benefits of having harmonious passion, even when obsessive passion is also high (i.e., mixed passion), and highlight the costs associated with a pure obsessive passion.

Passionately motivated reasoning: Biased processing of passion-threatening messages.

OBJECTIVE: When facing setbacks and obstacles, the dualistic model of passion outlines that obsessive passion, and not harmonious passion, will predict greater levels of defensiveness. Our aim was to determine whether these passion dimensions predicted defensiveness in the same way when confronted with threatening messages targeting the decision to pursue a passion. METHOD: Across four studies with passionate Facebook users, hockey fans, and runners (total N = 763), participants viewed messages giving reasons why their favorite activity should not be pursued. Participants either reported their desire to read the messages (Studies 1 and 2) or evaluated the messages after reading them (Studies 3 and 4). RESULTS: Harmonious passion consistently predicted higher levels of avoidance or negative evaluations of the messages. These responses were attenuated for participants who had previously affirmed an important value (Study 1), or who were told that they do not control the passions they pursue (Study 4). CONCLUSIONS: Harmonious passion entails a sense of autonomy and control over activity engagement, which usually leads to nondefensive behavior. However, this sense of control may elicit more defensive responses from more harmoniously passionate individuals when the decision itself to pursue an activity is under attack.

The effect of time perspectives on mental health information processing and help-seeking attitudes and intentions in younger versus older adults.

Socioemotional selectivity theory posits that changes in time perspective over the lifespan are associated with distinct goals and motivations. Time perspectives and their associated socioemotional motivations have been shown to influence information processing and memory, such that motivation-consistent information is more likely to be remembered and evaluated more positively. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine the effect of motivation-consistent mental health information on memory for and evaluations of this information, as well as help-seeking attitudes and intentions to seek mental health services. METHOD: We randomly assigned an Internet-based sample of 160 younger (18-25) and 175 older (60-89) adults to read a mental health information pamphlet that emphasized time perspectives and motivations relevant to either young adulthood (future-focused) or late adulthood (present-focused). Participants completed measures assessing their time perspective, memory for and subjective evaluation of the pamphlet, and help-seeking attitudes and intentions. RESULTS: The time perspective manipulation had no effect on memory for pamphlet information or help-seeking attitudes and intentions. There was, however, a significant interaction between time perspective and pamphlet version on the rated liking of the pamphlet. CONCLUSION: Although motivation-consistent information only affected perceptions of that information for present-focused (mostly older) individuals, this finding has important implications for enhancing older adults' mental health literacy.

The two roads of passionate goal pursuit: links with appraisal, coping, and academic achievement.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: In this research, we tested the role of cognitive appraisals in explaining why harmonious and obsessive passion dimensions are related to distinct forms of coping and explored if performance was impacted by these appraisal and coping processes. DESIGN: Undergraduate students (N = 489) participated in a longitudinal study and completed three surveys throughout the course of an academic year. METHODS: Participants completed assessments of both passion dimensions (Time 1), reported how they were appraising and coping with the mid-year examination period (Time 2), and provided consent to obtain their final grade in Introductory Psychology (Time 3). The hypothesized model was tested using structural equation modeling. RESULTS: Harmonious and obsessive passion dimensions were linked with approach and avoidant coping responses, respectively. Cognitive appraisals, particularly appraisals of challenge and uncontrollability, played an indirect role in these relationships. In addition, both appraisals and coping responses had an indirect effect in the relationship between passion dimensions and final grade. CONCLUSIONS: These results identify cognitive appraisal as a reason why passion dimensions are linked with distinct coping tendencies and demonstrate the role of appraisal and coping processes in the journey to passionate goal attainment.

Predicting stability and change in loneliness in later life.

This study examined potential discriminators of groups of older adults showing different patterns of stability or change in loneliness over 5 years: those who became lonely, overcame loneliness, were persistently lonely, and were persistently not lonely. Discriminant function analysis results showed that the persistently lonely, compared with the persistently not lonely, were more often living alone, widowed, and experiencing poorer health and perceived control. Moreover, changes in living arrangements and perceived control predicted loneliness change. In conclusion, perceiving that one is able to meet social needs is a predictor of loneliness and loneliness change and appears to be more important than people's friendships. Because the predictors were better able to predict entry into loneliness, results point to the promise of prevention approaches to loneliness interventions.

Consequences of loneliness on physical activity and mortality in older adults and the power of positive emotions.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined the longitudinal relationships between loneliness, physical activity, and mortality in older adults. This study also tested the implication of Fredrickson's Broaden and Build Theory (1998, 2001) that positive emotions (happiness) might serve to "undo" the detrimental effects of negative emotions (loneliness). METHOD: Participants (n = 228; 62% female; aged 77-96 years) took part in the Aging in Manitoba Study (2001) and the Successful Aging Study (2003). Mortality information was assessed in 2008. RESULTS: Regression analyses showed that loneliness longitudinally predicted perceived physical activity and mortality. Moreover, in support of Fredrickson's theory, happiness moderated these relationships, suggesting that happiness had the power to "undo" the detrimental effects of loneliness on activity and mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Loneliness is an independent risk factor for mortality and reduced physical activity among older adults; however, being happy may offset the negative consequences of being lonely. Future interventions could target positive emotions and loneliness as a way of ultimately enhancing the lifespan and wellspan of older adults.

Sense of control in late life: health and survival implications.

Believing that one can influence outcomes presumably fosters a psychological sense of control. So too, however, might adaptive ways of thinking known as secondary control (SC) processes that operate when outcomes are believed to be unattainable. Using a 5-year prospective design and a representative sample of adults (ages 79-98), folk beliefs (e.g., "negative experiences can be a blessing in disguise") were used to assess SC processes. The authors expected SC Folk Beliefs would predict Sense of Control (Hypothesis 1) which, in turn, would predict self-rated health, hospital admissions, and survival (Hypothesis 2). An indirect relationship was hypothesized: SC Folk Beliefs were expected to predict outcomes through the Sense of Control (Hypothesis 3). Support was found for all hypotheses providing insights into the antecedents and consequences of a sense of control and about how SC beliefs and a sense of control function in the context of health.

Age, relative autonomy and change in health locus of control beliefs: a longitudinal study of members of a health-promotion facility.

Health locus of control (HLC) describes an individual's characteristic attribution of health outcomes to internal or external causes. This four-year longitudinal study examined changes in HLC beliefs among 124 members of a health-promotion facility, related to their age (22-81) and relative autonomy toward health-related goals. HLC beliefs changed with age as developmental theories of control striving would predict. Holding age aside, the pursuit of health goals with more relative autonomy significantly offset the growth of external-chance HLC beliefs. Lack of autonomy thus appears to permit development of fatalistic attributions that may affect later coping with adverse health events.

Perceived control and risk characteristics as predictors of older adults' health risk estimates.

Overestimating one's own health risks is associated with negative affect and decreased well-being. To identify psychosocial factors that reduce pessimistic risk estimates, the authors examined global perceived (primary and secondary) control as a predictor of health risk (hip fracture) estimates among 222 community-dwelling older adults. To determine whether characteristics of the health risk moderated the effects of perceived control on risk estimates, the authors manipulated risk level (low, high) and risk attribution (controllable, uncontrollable). The effects of perceived control differed as a function of risk attribution: Regardless of implied risk level, perceived primary control significantly predicted lower risk estimates in the controllable condition but not in the uncontrollable condition. In contrast, perceived secondary control significantly predicted lower risk estimates in the uncontrollable condition but not in the controllable condition, emphasizing its importance when direct influence is not feasible. The authors discuss implications for anticipating how older adults estimate their health risks.

Exploring the commonalities between adaptive resources and self-enhancement in older adults' comparative judgments of physical activity.

Objective. This study examines the extent to which optimism, control beliefs and motivation, and downward social comparison contribute independently to the maintenance of older adults positive self-evaluations in a functional domain. Method. Adaptive resources/strategies and life satisfaction were measured in personal interviews with 164 community-dwelling older adults. Participants judged their physical activity compared with the average person of their age and wore an accelerometer for 24 hours. Commonality analysis was used to estimate unique versus shared effects of the resource/strategy variables on a residual measure of self-enhancement, obtained by adjusting the comparative judgments for participants' age and objectively measured physical activity. Results. Self-enhancement was positively related to life satisfaction. Perceived control and optimism had shared positive effects on self-enhancement, whereas downward social comparison had a unique positive effect. Discussion. Self-enhancement of physical activity plays a part in at least two adaptive profiles with implications for older adults' well-being and health.

Collective self-esteem and the onset of chronic conditions and reduced activity in a longitudinal study of aging.

Collective self-esteem (CSE) is an individual's self-evaluation as a member of social groups. It is thought to promote health and well-being in later life by moderating the harmful effects of losing personal control over these experiences. In this study of 144 community-dwelling older adults in Manitoba, Canada, among those with lower health-related perceived control, respondents with higher CSE at baseline developed significantly fewer chronic conditions over the next 6 years. An expected negative relationship between age and activity level, which respondents higher in CSE showed, was not observed among respondents with lower CSE, whose activity level in the sample age range (78-98 years) was already very low. Higher CSE thus appeared to delay the decline of activity and chronic health that would otherwise accompany age and the absence of perceived control.

Emotional and self-evaluative effects of social comparison information in later life: how are they moderated by collective self-esteem?

This study examined how the emotional and self-evaluative effects of social comparison in 162 community-dwelling older people were moderated by individual differences in their collective self-esteem (CSE), a trait that reflects valuing and identifying with reference groups. In our experimental simulation, administered 6 years after participants' CSE was measured, those with higher CSE reported significantly more positive emotions and self-evaluations only after downward comparison (i.e., with a worse-off peer), and significantly more negative emotions only after upward comparison (i.e., with a better-off peer). These findings contradict the possibility that an adaptive advantage of high CSE might result from the propensity to identify strategically with upward comparison targets. However, contrast with downward targets presents a viable alternative explanation for this advantage.

Optimistic social comparisons of older adults low in primary control: a prospective analysis of hospitalization and mortality.

Social comparison can be used strategically to bolster the self-concept. Such use may constitute secondary striving for control, when primary striving through action is unattainable. On the basis of the life span theory of control, the authors hypothesized and found that social comparison judgments would predict physical health outcomes among older adults with low primary control perceptions in the health domain. Only among such respondents, after age, sex, activities of daily living, chronic conditions, and prior hospitalization were adjusted for, did more positive social comparison judgments predict significantly lower odds of hospitalization and death over the next 2--6 years as reported in provincial health records. In later life, optimistic social comparisons may contribute to better health by providing secondary control.

Two views of self-rated general health status.

Global self-evaluations of health have proven to be sensitive predictors of morbidity and mortality. Yet researchers have only a limited understanding of how these self-evaluations are reached. This research compares two interpretations of self-rated health, as reflecting either a spontaneous assessment of one's health status and related practices, or an aspect of one's enduring self-concept. Using longitudinal data from successive waves of the National Population Health Survey in Canada (Statistics Canada, 1994-95, 1996-97, NPHS public use microdata documentation. Ottawa, Ontario: Statistics Canada; n = 7505), our analysis tests a model of change in self-rated health as predicted by respondents' baseline physical and mental health symptoms, social support, leisure physical activity, smoking, body mass index, and 2-yr changes in these characteristics. As in past research, self-rated health was sensitive to improvement or decline in these predictors. Much of the explained variance, however, was unique to respondents' self-rated health 2 yr earlier. Moreover, the effect of several predictors on respondents' self-rated health varied according to whether respondents intended to improve specific health-related behaviours in the future. These findings suggest that self-rated health is not only a spontaneous assessment of one's health status and related practices; like a self-concept, self-rated health may be regulated by efforts to achieve one's relatively important health-related goals.

Compensating for losses in perceived personal control over health: a role for collective self-esteem in healthy aging.

Collective self-esteem (CSE) refers to an individual's self-evaluation of his or her social identity. We speculate that a positive social identity, or high CSE, facilitates accommodation to negative health-related circumstances in later life, especially when one feels unable to alter these circumstances directly. Accordingly, we hypothesized that CSE would be associated with fewer chronic conditions and greater perceived health for those with low perceived control. Hierarchical regression analyses of data from 1,267 respondents (60% women, aged 69-101) in the 1996 Aging in Manitoba survey confirmed the predicted CSE x Perceived Control interaction on both measures of health status. These findings persisted when respondents' self-rated loneliness was controlled. CSE may compensate to protect the health of older adults whose perceived personal control over health is low. Secondary control and alternative mechanisms for this protective effect are discussed.