Presynaptic Dopaminergic Imaging Characterizes Patients with REM Sleep Behavior Disorder Due to Synucleinopathy.

OBJECTIVE: To apply a machine learning analysis to clinical and presynaptic dopaminergic imaging data of patients with rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder (RBD) to predict the development of Parkinson disease (PD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB). METHODS: In this multicenter study of the International RBD study group, 173 patients (mean age 70.5 ± 6.3 years, 70.5% males) with polysomnography-confirmed RBD who eventually phenoconverted to overt alpha-synucleinopathy (RBD due to synucleinopathy) were enrolled, and underwent baseline presynaptic dopaminergic imaging and clinical assessment, including motor, cognitive, olfaction, and constipation evaluation. For comparison, 232 RBD non-phenoconvertor patients (67.6 ± 7.1 years, 78.4% males) and 160 controls (68.2 ± 7.2 years, 53.1% males) were enrolled. Imaging and clinical features were analyzed by machine learning to determine predictors of phenoconversion. RESULTS: Machine learning analysis showed that clinical data alone poorly predicted phenoconversion. Presynaptic dopaminergic imaging significantly improved the prediction, especially in combination with clinical data, with 77% sensitivity and 85% specificity in differentiating RBD due to synucleinopathy from non phenoconverted RBD patients, and 85% sensitivity and 86% specificity in discriminating PD-converters from DLB-converters. Quantification of presynaptic dopaminergic imaging showed that an empirical z-score cutoff of -1.0 at the most affected hemisphere putamen characterized RBD due to synucleinopathy patients, while a cutoff of -1.0 at the most affected hemisphere putamen/caudate ratio characterized PD-converters. INTERPRETATION: Clinical data alone poorly predicted phenoconversion in RBD due to synucleinopathy patients. Conversely, presynaptic dopaminergic imaging allows a good prediction of forthcoming phenoconversion diagnosis. This finding may be used in designing future disease-modifying trials. ANN NEUROL 2024;95:1178-1192.

Prodromal dementia with Lewy bodies in REM sleep behavior disorder: A multicenter study.

INTRODUCTION: Isolated/idiopathic rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder (iRBD) is a powerful early predictor of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and Parkinson's disease (PD). This provides an opportunity to directly observe the evolution of prodromal DLB and to identify which cognitive variables are the strongest predictors of evolving dementia. METHODS: IRBD participants (n = 754) from 10 centers of the International RBD Study Group underwent annual neuropsychological assessment. Competing risk regression analysis determined optimal predictors of dementia. Linear mixed-effect models determined the annual progression of neuropsychological testing. RESULTS: Reduced attention and executive function, particularly performance on the Trail Making Test Part B, were the strongest identifiers of early DLB. In phenoconverters, the onset of cognitive decline began up to 10 years prior to phenoconversion. Changes in verbal memory best differentiated between DLB and PD subtypes. DISCUSSION: In iRBD, attention and executive dysfunction strongly predict dementia and begin declining several years prior to phenoconversion. HIGHLIGHTS: Cognitive decline in iRBD begins up to 10 years prior to phenoconversion. Attention and executive dysfunction are the strongest predictors of dementia in iRBD. Decline in episodic memory best distinguished dementia-first from parkinsonism-first phenoconversion.

Ikelos-RWA. Validation of an Automatic Tool to Quantify REM Sleep Without Atonia.

Study Objectives. To present and evaluate an automatic scoring algorithm for quantification of REM-sleep without atonia (RWA) in patients with REM-sleep behaviour disorder (RBD) based on a generally accepted, well-validated visual scoring method, ("Montreal" phasic and tonic) and a recently developed, concise scoring method (Ikelos-RWA). Methods. Video-polysomnographies of 20 RBD patients (68.2 ± 7.2 years) and 20 control patients with periodic limb movement disorder (65.9 ± 6.7 years) were retrospectively analysed. RWA was estimated from chin electromyogram during REM-sleep. Visual and automated RWA scorings were correlated, and agreement (a) and Cohen's Kappa (k) calculated for 1735 minutes of REM-sleep of the RBD patients. Discrimination performance was evaluated with receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. The algorithm was then applied on the polysomnographies of a cohort of 232 RBD patients (total analysed REM-sleep: 17,219 minutes) and evaluated, while correlating the different output parameters. Results. Visual and computer-derived RWA scorings correlated significantly (tonic Montreal: rTM = 0.77; phasic Montreal: rPM = 0.78; Ikelos-RWA: rI = 0.97; all p < 0.001) and showed good to excellent Kappa coefficients (kTM = 0.71; kPM = 0.79; kI = 0.77). The ROC analysis showed high sensitivities (95%-100%) and specificities (84%-95%) at the optimal operation points, with area under the curve (AUC) of 0.98, indicating high discriminating capacity. The automatic RWA scorings of 232 patients correlated significantly (rTM{I} = 0.95; rPM{I} = 0.91, p < 0.0001). Conclusions. The presented algorithm is an easy-to-use and valid tool for automatic RWA scoring in patients with RBD and may prove effective for general use being publicly available.

Seasonality of human sleep: Polysomnographic data of a neuropsychiatric sleep clinic.

While short-term effects of artificial light on human sleep are increasingly being studied, reports on long-term effects induced by season are scarce. Assessments of subjective sleep length over the year suggest a substantially longer sleep period during winter. Our retrospective study aimed to investigate seasonal variation in objective sleep measures in a cohort of patients living in an urban environment. In 2019, three-night polysomnography was performed on 292 patients with neuropsychiatric sleep disturbances. Measures of the diagnostic second nights were averaged per month and analyzed over the year. Patients were advised to sleep "as usual" including timing, except alarm clocks were not allowed. Exclusion criteria: administration of psychotropic agents known to influence sleep (N = 96), REM-sleep latency > 120 min (N = 5), technical failure (N = 3). Included were 188 patients: [46.6 ± 15.9 years (mean ± SD); range 17-81 years; 52% female]; most common sleep-related diagnoses: insomnia (N = 108), depression (N = 59) and sleep-related breathing disorders (N = 52). Analyses showed: 1. total sleep time (TST) longer during winter than summer (up to 60 min; not significant); 2. REM-sleep latency shorter during autumn than spring (about 25 min, p = 0.010); 3. REM-sleep longer during winter than spring (about 30 min, p = 0.009, 5% of TST, p = 0.011); 4. slow-wave-sleep stable winter to summer (about 60-70 min) with 30-50 min shorter during autumn (only significant as % of TST, 10% decrease, p = 0.017). Data suggest seasonal variation in sleep architecture even when living in an urban environment in patients with disturbed sleep. If replicated in a healthy population, this would provide first evidence for a need to adjust sleep habits to season.

Progression of clinical markers in prodromal Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies: a multicentre study.

The neurodegenerative synucleinopathies, including Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies, are characterized by a typically lengthy prodromal period of progressive subclinical motor and non-motor manifestations. Among these, idiopathic REM sleep behaviour disorder is a powerful early predictor of eventual phenoconversion, and therefore represents a critical opportunity to intervene with neuroprotective therapy. To inform the design of randomized trials, it is essential to study the natural progression of clinical markers during the prodromal stages of disease in order to establish optimal clinical end points. In this study, we combined prospective follow-up data from 28 centres of the International REM Sleep Behavior Disorder Study Group representing 12 countries. Polysomnogram-confirmed REM sleep behaviour disorder subjects were assessed for prodromal Parkinson's disease using the Movement Disorder Society criteria and underwent periodic structured sleep, motor, cognitive, autonomic and olfactory testing. We used linear mixed-effect modelling to estimate annual rates of clinical marker progression stratified by disease subtype, including prodromal Parkinson's disease and prodromal dementia with Lewy bodies. In addition, we calculated sample size requirements to demonstrate slowing of progression under different anticipated treatment effects. Overall, 1160 subjects were followed over an average of 3.3 ± 2.2 years. Among clinical variables assessed continuously, motor variables tended to progress faster and required the lowest sample sizes, ranging from 151 to 560 per group (at 50% drug efficacy and 2-year follow-up). By contrast, cognitive, olfactory and autonomic variables showed modest progression with higher variability, resulting in high sample sizes. The most efficient design was a time-to-event analysis using combined milestones of motor and cognitive decline, estimating 117 per group at 50% drug efficacy and 2-year trial duration. Finally, while phenoconverters showed overall greater progression than non-converters in motor, olfactory, cognitive and certain autonomic markers, the only robust difference in progression between Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies phenoconverters was in cognitive testing. This large multicentre study demonstrates the evolution of motor and non-motor manifestations in prodromal synucleinopathy. These findings provide optimized clinical end points and sample size estimates to inform future neuroprotective trials.

Prognostic biomarkers in prodromal α-synucleinopathies: DAT binding and REM sleep without atonia.

BACKGROUND: Isolated rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behaviour disorder (iRBD) is a prodromal state of clinical α-synucleinopathies such as Parkinson's disease and Lewy body dementia. The lead-time until conversion is unknown. The most reliable marker of progression is reduced striatal dopamine transporter (DAT) binding, but low availability of imaging facilities limits general use. Our prospective observational study aimed to relate metrics of REM sleep without atonia (RWA)-a hallmark of RBD-to DAT-binding ratios in a large, homogeneous sample of patients with RBD to explore the utility of RWA as a marker of progression in prodromal α-synucleinopathies. METHODS: DAT single-photon emission CT (SPECT) and video polysomnography (vPSG) were performed in 221 consecutive patients with clinically suspected RBD. RESULTS: vPSG confirmed RBD in 176 patients (162 iRBD, 14 phenoconverted, 45 non-synucleinopathies). Specific DAT-binding ratios differed significantly between groups, but showed considerable overlap. Most RWA metrics correlated significantly with DAT-SPECT ratios (eg, Montreal tonic vs most-affected-region: r=-0.525; p<0.001). In patients taking serotonergic/noradrenergic antidepressants or dopaminergic substances or with recent alcohol abuse, correlations were weaker, suggesting a confounding influence, unlike other possible confounders such as beta-blocker use or comorbid sleep apnoea. CONCLUSIONS: In this large single-centre prospective observational study, we found evidence that DAT-binding ratios in patients with iRBD can be used to describe a continuum in the neurodegenerative process. Overlap with non-synucleinopathies and clinical α-synucleinopathies, however, precludes the use of DAT-binding ratios as a precise diagnostic marker. The parallel course of RWA metrics and DAT-binding ratios suggests in addition to existing data that RWA, part of the routine diagnostic workup in these patients, may represent a marker of progression. Based on our findings, we suggest ranges of RWA values to estimate whether patients are in an early, medium or advanced state within the prodromal phase of α-synucleinopathies, providing them with important information about time until possible conversion.

Video-polysomnography procedures for diagnosis of rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder (RBD) and the identification of its prodromal stages: guidelines from the International RBD Study Group.

Video-polysomnography (v-PSG) is essential for diagnosing rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder (RBD). Although there are current American Academy of Sleep Medicine standards to diagnose RBD, several aspects need to be addressed to achieve harmonization across sleep centers. Prodromal RBD is a stage in which symptoms and signs of evolving RBD are present, but do not yet meet established diagnostic criteria for RBD. However, the boundary between prodromal and definite RBD is still unclear. As a common effort of the Neurophysiology Working Group of the International RBD Study Group, this manuscript addresses the need for comprehensive and unambiguous v-PSG recommendations to diagnose RBD and identify prodromal RBD. These include: (1) standardized v-PSG technical settings; (2) specific considerations for REM sleep scoring; (3) harmonized methods for scoring REM sleep without atonia; (4) consistent methods to analyze video and audio recorded during v-PSGs and to classify movements and vocalizations; (5) clear v-PSG guidelines to diagnose RBD and identify prodromal RBD. Each section follows a common template: The current recommendations and methods are presented, their limitations are outlined, and new recommendations are described. Finally, future directions are presented. These v-PSG recommendations are intended for both practicing clinicians and researchers. Classification and quantification of motor events, RBD episodes, and vocalizations are however intended for research purposes only. These v-PSG guidelines will allow collection of homogeneous data, providing objective v-PSG measures and making future harmonized multicentric studies and clinical trials possible.

Post-Illumination Pupil Response as a Biomarker for Cognition in α-Synucleinopathies.

Neurodegenerative processes in the brain are reflected by structural retinal changes. As a possible biomarker of cognitive state in prodromal α-synucleinopathies, we compared melanopsin-mediated post-illumination pupil response (PIPR) with cognition (CERAD-plus) in 69 patients with isolated REM-sleep behavior disorder. PIPR was significantly correlated with cognitive domains, especially executive functioning (r = 0.417, p < 0.001), which was more pronounced in patients with lower dopamine-transporter density, suggesting advanced neurodegenerative state (n = 26; r = 0.575, p = 0.002). Patients with mild neurocognitive disorder (n = 10) had significantly reduced PIPR (smaller melanopsin-mediated response) compared to those without (p = 0.001). Thus, PIPR may be a functional-possibly monitoring-marker for impaired cognitive state in (prodromal) α-synucleinopathies.

Treatment of isolated REM sleep behavior disorder using melatonin as a chronobiotic.

Melatonin is recommended as a first-line treatment in isolated REM sleep behavior disorder (iRBD), although no large patient group has been reported. To assess effects, time course and confounding factors in the treatment of patients with iRBD using melatonin, 209 consecutive patients were included in this single-center, observational cohort study. A total of 171 patients had taken melatonin according to our chronobiotic protocol (2 mg, ≥6 months, always-at-the-same-clock time, 10-11pm, corrected for chronotype), 13 had applied melatonin for about 1-3 months, and 25 underwent mixed treatments. In total, 1529 clinical evaluations were performed, including Clinical Global Impression (CGI) and a newly developed RBD symptom severity scale (Ikelos-RS), analyzed using linear mixed models. Validation of Ikelos-RS showed excellent inter-rater reliability (ρ = 0.9, P < .001), test-retest reliability (ρ = 0.9, P < .001) and convergent validity (ρ = 0.9, P < .001). With melatonin, RBD symptom severity gradually improved over the first 4 weeks of treatment (Ikelos-RS: 6.1 vs. 2.5; CGI Severity: 5.7 vs. 3.2) and remained stably improved (mean follow-up 4.2 ± 3.1years; range: 0.6-21.7years). Initial response was slowed to up to 3 months with melatonin-suppressing (betablockers) or REM sleep spoiling co-medication (antidepressants) and failed with inadequately timed melatonin intake. When melatonin was discontinued after 6 months, symptoms remained stably improved (mean follow-up after discontinuation of 4.9 ± 2.5years; range: 0.6-9.2). When administered only 1-3 months, RBD symptoms gradually returned. Without any melatonin, RBD symptoms persisted and did not wear off over time. Clock-timed, low-dose, long-term melatonin treatment in patients with iRBD appears to be associated with the improvement of symptoms. The outlasting improvement over years questions a pure symptomatic effect. Clock-time dependency challenges existing prescription guidelines for melatonin.

Living in Biological Darkness: Objective Sleepiness and the Pupillary Light Responses Are Affected by Different Metameric Lighting Conditions during Daytime.

Nighttime melatonin suppression is the most commonly used method to indirectly quantify acute nonvisual light effects. Since light is the principal zeitgeber in humans, there is a need to assess its strength during daytime as well. This is especially important since humans evolved under natural daylight but now often spend their time indoors under artificial light, resulting in a different quality and quantity of light. We tested whether the pupillary light response (PLR) could be used as a marker for nonvisual light effects during daytime. We also recorded the wake electroencephalogram to objectively determine changes in daytime sleepiness between different illuminance levels and/or spectral compositions of light. In total, 72 participants visited the laboratory 4 times for 3-h light exposures. All participants underwent a dim-light condition and either 3 metameric daytime light exposures with different spectral compositions of polychromatic white light (100 photopic lux, peak wavelengths at 435 nm or 480 nm, enriched with longer wavelengths of light) or 3 different illuminances (200, 600, and 1200 photopic lux) with 1 metameric lighting condition (peak wavelength at 435 nm or 480 nm; 24 participants each). The results show that the PLR was sensitive to both spectral differences between metameric lighting conditions and different illuminances in a dose-responsive manner, depending on melanopic irradiance. Objective sleepiness was significantly reduced, depending on melanopic irradiance, at low illuminance (100 lux) and showed fewer differences at higher illuminance. Since many people are exposed to such low illuminance for most of their day-living in biological darkness-our results imply that optimizing the light spectrum could be important to improve daytime alertness. Our results suggest the PLR as a noninvasive physiological marker for ambient light exposure effects during daytime. These findings may be applied to assess light-dependent zeitgeber strength and evaluate lighting improvements at workplaces, schools, hospitals, and homes.

Risk and predictors of dementia and parkinsonism in idiopathic REM sleep behaviour disorder: a multicentre study.

Idiopathic REM sleep behaviour disorder (iRBD) is a powerful early sign of Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, and multiple system atrophy. This provides an unprecedented opportunity to directly observe prodromal neurodegenerative states, and potentially intervene with neuroprotective therapy. For future neuroprotective trials, it is essential to accurately estimate phenoconversion rate and identify potential predictors of phenoconversion. This study assessed the neurodegenerative disease risk and predictors of neurodegeneration in a large multicentre cohort of iRBD. We combined prospective follow-up data from 24 centres of the International RBD Study Group. At baseline, patients with polysomnographically-confirmed iRBD without parkinsonism or dementia underwent sleep, motor, cognitive, autonomic and special sensory testing. Patients were then prospectively followed, during which risk of dementia and parkinsonsim were assessed. The risk of dementia and parkinsonism was estimated with Kaplan-Meier analysis. Predictors of phenoconversion were assessed with Cox proportional hazards analysis, adjusting for age, sex, and centre. Sample size estimates for disease-modifying trials were calculated using a time-to-event analysis. Overall, 1280 patients were recruited. The average age was 66.3 ± 8.4 and 82.5% were male. Average follow-up was 4.6 years (range = 1-19 years). The overall conversion rate from iRBD to an overt neurodegenerative syndrome was 6.3% per year, with 73.5% converting after 12-year follow-up. The rate of phenoconversion was significantly increased with abnormal quantitative motor testing [hazard ratio (HR) = 3.16], objective motor examination (HR = 3.03), olfactory deficit (HR = 2.62), mild cognitive impairment (HR = 1.91-2.37), erectile dysfunction (HR = 2.13), motor symptoms (HR = 2.11), an abnormal DAT scan (HR = 1.98), colour vision abnormalities (HR = 1.69), constipation (HR = 1.67), REM atonia loss (HR = 1.54), and age (HR = 1.54). There was no significant predictive value of sex, daytime somnolence, insomnia, restless legs syndrome, sleep apnoea, urinary dysfunction, orthostatic symptoms, depression, anxiety, or hyperechogenicity on substantia nigra ultrasound. Among predictive markers, only cognitive variables were different at baseline between those converting to primary dementia versus parkinsonism. Sample size estimates for definitive neuroprotective trials ranged from 142 to 366 patients per arm. This large multicentre study documents the high phenoconversion rate from iRBD to an overt neurodegenerative syndrome. Our findings provide estimates of the relative predictive value of prodromal markers, which can be used to stratify patients for neuroprotective trials.

The alerting effect of the wake maintenance zone during 40 hours of sleep deprivation.

Under entrained conditions, the accumulation of homeostatic sleep pressure in the evening is opposed by a strong circadian arousal signal prior to the dim light melatonin onset, called the Wake Maintenance Zone (WMZ). This study aimed at investigating the impact of the WMZ on different cognitive performance tests, as well as on subjective and objective sleepiness. Twelve young male participants completed a constant routine protocol with 40 h of extended wakefulness that included two WMZs. Cognitive tests and saliva samples were assessed hourly, while the electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded continuously. Participants improved in cognitive response inhibition during WMZ1 (13.5 h awake) and sustained attention during WMZ2 (37.5 h awake), but not in higher executive function tests. There were significant EEG power density reductions in the delta/theta frequency range during WMZ1 and in delta/theta, alpha, and sigma/beta ranges during WMZ2, with a greater change in the sigma/beta range during WMZ2 compared to WMZ1. EEG power reductions coincided during WMZ1 with stable subjective sleepiness and sustained attention. During WMZ2, EEG power reductions were more pronounced and coincided with improved sustained attention. Our results suggest the circadian arousal signal in the evening differently modulates cognitive functions and EEG power depending on the duration of prior wakefulness.

High-accuracy determination of internal circadian time from a single blood sample.

BACKGROUND: The circadian clock is a fundamental and pervasive biological program that coordinates 24-hour rhythms in physiology, metabolism, and behavior, and it is essential to health. Whereas therapy adapted to time of day is increasingly reported to be highly successful, it needs to be personalized, since internal circadian time is different for each individual. In addition, internal time is not a stable trait, but is influenced by many factors, including genetic predisposition, age, sex, environmental light levels, and season. An easy and convenient diagnostic tool is currently missing. METHODS: To establish a validated test, we followed a 3-stage biomarker development strategy: (a) using circadian transcriptomics of blood monocytes from 12 individuals in a constant routine protocol combined with machine learning approaches, we identified biomarkers for internal time; and these biomarkers (b) were migrated to a clinically relevant gene expression profiling platform (NanoString) and (c) were externally validated using an independent study with 28 early or late chronotypes. RESULTS: We developed a highly accurate and simple assay (BodyTime) to estimate the internal circadian time in humans from a single blood sample. Our assay needs only a small set of blood-based transcript biomarkers and is as accurate as the current gold standard method, dim-light melatonin onset, at smaller monetary, time, and sample-number cost. CONCLUSION: The BodyTime assay provides a new diagnostic tool for personalization of health care according to the patient's circadian clock. FUNDING: This study was supported by the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung, Germany (FKZ: 13N13160 and 13N13162) and Intellux GmbH, Germany.

Melatonin Effects in REM Sleep Behavior Disorder Associated with Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome: A Case Series.

OBJECTIVES: REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD), with its main clinical symptoms of nightmares with dream-enacting behavior, is considered as a possible precursor of neurodegenerative disease. Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome (OSAS) is known to be capable of provoking RBD-like symptoms by apneic event related arousals. The two sleep related pathologies must coincide in a relevant number of individuals because of overlapping prevalence in similar age groups. Until now RBD symptoms coexisting with OSAS are rarely described in scientific literature and in fact considered as OSAS mimicking RBD. METHODS: We report four cases with a severe clinical RBD syndrome which were polysomnographically also diagnosed with concomitant OSAS (AHI range: 10.1 -53.2/h). RESULTS: Treatment with 2 mg prolonged release melatonin led to a relevant clinical improvement of RBD symptoms in all patients, so far untreated for the sleep related breathing disorder. Measure of REM sleep without atonia (RSWA) in polysomnography showed values ranging from 5.1 to 20.4% determined with the Montplaisir method. Surprisingly, RSWA values in PSG with melatonin were high, probably because of the still untreated OSAS. CONCLUSION: We presume that in patients with RBD and OSAS both pathologies contribute in varying degrees to the emergence of RBD symptoms by a destabilization of REM sleep. We suggest by consequence to consider a therapeutic strategy including the treatment of both disorders for an optimal therapeutic response.

Twenty Years After: Another Case Report of Melatonin Effects on REM Sleep Behavior Disorder, Using Serial Dopamine Transporter Imaging.

INTRODUCTION: REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) is considered a prodromal phase of α-synucleinopathy like Parkinson disease (PD). PD is characterized by a progressive decline of dopamine (DA) in the striatum. Here we report the surprising increase in DA transporter density over successive years in an RBD patient treated with melatonin. CASE PRESENTATION: A then 72-year-old man was clinically suspected to suffer from PD in 2011. DA transporter scintigraphy (DaTSCAN) revealed reduced DA transporter density, and the patient was diagnosed with developing PD. Because of outacting dreams every night (speaking, yelling, kicking, pushing) he was referred to our clinic. Video-assisted polysomnography (PSG) confirmed the diagnosis of RBD in 2012. Management and Outcome: Melatonin treatment (2 mg slow release/day; 30 min prior to habitual bedtime; always at the same clock time) was initiated after PSG and continued. After 6 months of gradual improvement, clinical signs of RBD were absent. Control PSG in 2014 confirmed normalized REM sleep with atonia. Furthermore, no clinical sign of neurodegeneration occurred ever since. Additional DaTSCANs were performed in 2013 and 2015. Whereas the 2011 scan prior to melatonin treatment bore clear signs of PD, the 2013 scan was considered borderline and the 2015 scan without any sign of PD. DISCUSSION: To the best of our knowledge, DA transporter density increase over time has never been reported in a single subject, neither healthy aged individuals nor patients suffering from RBD or PD. We interpret these results as a possible neuroprotective role for melatonin in synucleinopathy.

Blue-Enriched Morning Light as a Countermeasure to Light at the Wrong Time: Effects on Cognition, Sleepiness, Sleep, and Circadian Phase.

Light during the day and darkness at night are crucial factors for proper entrainment of the human circadian system to the solar 24-h day. However, modern life and work styles have led to much more time spent indoors, often with lower daytime and higher evening/nighttime light intensity from electrical lighting than outdoors. Whether this has long-term consequences for human health is being currently investigated. We tested if bright blue-enriched morning light over several days could counteract the detrimental effects of inadequate daytime and evening lighting. In a seminaturalistic, within-between subject study design, 18 young participants were exposed to different lighting conditions on 3 evenings (blue-enriched, bright orange, or dim light), after exposure to 2 lighting conditions (mixed blue-enriched light and control light, for 3 days each) in the mornings. Subjective sleepiness, reaction times, salivary melatonin concentrations, and nighttime sleep were assessed. Exposure to the blue-enriched morning lighting showed acute wake-promoting effects and faster reaction times than with control lighting. Some of these effects persisted until the evening, and performance improved over several days. The magnitude of circadian phase shifts induced by combinations of 3 different evening and 2 morning lighting conditions were significantly smaller with the blue-enriched morning light. During the night, participants had longer total sleep times after orange light exposure than after blue light exposure in the evening. Our results indicate that bright blue-enriched morning light stabilizes circadian phase, and it could be an effective counterstrategy for poor lighting during the day and also light exposure at the wrong time, such as in the late evening.

Guidelines for the recording and evaluation of pharmaco-sleep studies in man: the International Pharmaco-EEG Society (IPEG).

The International Pharmaco-EEG Society (IPEG) presents guidelines summarising the requirements for the recording and computerised evaluation of pharmaco-sleep data in man. Over the past years, technical and data-processing methods have advanced steadily, thus enhancing data quality and expanding the palette of sleep assessment tools that can be used to investigate the activity of drugs on the central nervous system (CNS), determine the time course of effects and pharmacodynamic properties of novel therapeutics, hence enabling the study of the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic relationship, and evaluate the CNS penetration or toxicity of compounds. However, despite the presence of robust guidelines on the scoring of polysomnography -recordings, a review of the literature reveals inconsistent -aspects in the operating procedures from one study to another. While this fact does not invalidate results, the lack of standardisation constitutes a regrettable shortcoming, especially in the context of drug development programmes. The present guidelines are intended to assist investigators, who are using pharmaco-sleep measures in clinical research, in an effort to provide clear and concise recommendations and thereby to standardise methodology and facilitate comparability of data across laboratories.