Mixed responses to targeted therapy driven by chromosomal instability through p53 dysfunction and genome doubling.

The phenomenon of mixed/heterogenous treatment responses to cancer therapies within an individual patient presents a challenging clinical scenario. Furthermore, the molecular basis of mixed intra-patient tumor responses remains unclear. Here, we show that patients with metastatic lung adenocarcinoma harbouring co-mutations of EGFR and TP53, are more likely to have mixed intra-patient tumor responses to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibition (TKI), compared to those with an EGFR mutation alone. The combined presence of whole genome doubling (WGD) and TP53 co-mutations leads to increased genome instability and genomic copy number aberrations in genes implicated in EGFR TKI resistance. Using mouse models and an in vitro isogenic p53-mutant model system, we provide evidence that WGD provides diverse routes to drug resistance by increasing the probability of acquiring copy-number gains or losses relative to non-WGD cells. These data provide a molecular basis for mixed tumor responses to targeted therapy, within an individual patient, with implications for therapeutic strategies.

Focal adhesion kinase-YAP signaling axis drives drug-tolerant persister cells and residual disease in lung cancer.

Targeted therapy is effective in many tumor types including lung cancer, the leading cause of cancer mortality. Paradigm defining examples are targeted therapies directed against non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) subtypes with oncogenic alterations in EGFR, ALK and KRAS. The success of targeted therapy is limited by drug-tolerant persister cells (DTPs) which withstand and adapt to treatment and comprise the residual disease state that is typical during treatment with clinical targeted therapies. Here, we integrate studies in patient-derived and immunocompetent lung cancer models and clinical specimens obtained from patients on targeted therapy to uncover a focal adhesion kinase (FAK)-YAP signaling axis that promotes residual disease during oncogenic EGFR-, ALK-, and KRAS-targeted therapies. FAK-YAP signaling inhibition combined with the primary targeted therapy suppressed residual drug-tolerant cells and enhanced tumor responses. This study unveils a FAK-YAP signaling module that promotes residual disease in lung cancer and mechanism-based therapeutic strategies to improve tumor response.

PERCEPTION predicts patient response and resistance to treatment using single-cell transcriptomics of their tumors.

Tailoring optimal treatment for individual cancer patients remains a significant challenge. To address this issue, we developed PERCEPTION (PERsonalized Single-Cell Expression-Based Planning for Treatments In ONcology), a precision oncology computational pipeline. Our approach uses publicly available matched bulk and single-cell (sc) expression profiles from large-scale cell-line drug screens. These profiles help build treatment response models based on patients' sc-tumor transcriptomics. PERCEPTION demonstrates success in predicting responses to targeted therapies in cultured and patient-tumor-derived primary cells, as well as in two clinical trials for multiple myeloma and breast cancer. It also captures the resistance development in patients with lung cancer treated with tyrosine kinase inhibitors. PERCEPTION outperforms published state-of-the-art sc-based and bulk-based predictors in all clinical cohorts. PERCEPTION is accessible at https://github.com/ruppinlab/PERCEPTION . Our work, showcasing patient stratification using sc-expression profiles of their tumors, will encourage the adoption of sc-omics profiling in clinical settings, enhancing precision oncology tools based on sc-omics.

Targeting MEK in non-small cell lung cancer.

The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK or MEK) pathway modulates tumor cell survival and proliferation in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Unlike RAS or EGFR, activating mutations in MEK are exceedingly rare in NSCLC. Instead, enhanced activation of the MEK pathway is often linked to increased signaling by upstream oncogenic driver mutations. Thus far, MEK inhibitor monotherapy has shown little promise. However, treatment strategies involving MEK inhibition in combination with other targeted therapies in other oncogene-driven NSCLC has proven to be encouraging. For example, MEK inhibition - when combined with BRAF inhibition, - has shown strong anti-tumor activity in BRAF V600 mutated NSCLC. In this review, recent data on MEK inhibitor strategies in NSCLC are summarized. Furthermore, ongoing early phase trials investigating MEK inhibitor combination therapy with immunotherapy, chemotherapy and other oncogene drivers are highlighted. These and other studies could help inform future rational combination strategies of MEK-ERK inhibition in oncogene-driven NSCLC.

The role of APOBEC3B in lung tumor evolution and targeted cancer therapy resistance.

In this study, the impact of the apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing catalytic subunit-like (APOBEC) enzyme APOBEC3B (A3B) on epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-driven lung cancer was assessed. A3B expression in EGFR mutant (EGFRmut) non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) mouse models constrained tumorigenesis, while A3B expression in tumors treated with EGFR-targeted cancer therapy was associated with treatment resistance. Analyses of human NSCLC models treated with EGFR-targeted therapy showed upregulation of A3B and revealed therapy-induced activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) as an inducer of A3B expression. Significantly reduced viability was observed with A3B deficiency, and A3B was required for the enrichment of APOBEC mutation signatures, in targeted therapy-treated human NSCLC preclinical models. Upregulation of A3B was confirmed in patients with NSCLC treated with EGFR-targeted therapy. This study uncovers the multifaceted roles of A3B in NSCLC and identifies A3B as a potential target for more durable responses to targeted cancer therapy.

Private Payer and Medicare Coverage Policies for Use of Circulating Tumor DNA Tests in Cancer Diagnostics and Treatment.

BACKGROUND: Circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) is used to select initial targeted therapy, identify mechanisms of therapeutic resistance, and measure minimal residual disease (MRD) after treatment. Our objective was to review private and Medicare coverage policies for ctDNA testing. METHODS: Policy Reporter was used to identify coverage policies (as of February 2022) from private payers and Medicare Local Coverage Determinations (LCDs) for ctDNA tests. We abstracted data regarding policy existence, ctDNA test coverage, cancer types covered, and clinical indications. Descriptive analyses were performed by payer, clinical indication, and cancer type. RESULTS: A total of 71 of 1,066 total policies met study inclusion criteria, of which 57 were private policies and 14 were Medicare LCDs; 70% of private policies and 100% of Medicare LCDs covered at least one indication. Among 57 private policies, 89% specified a policy for at least 1 clinical indication, with coverage for ctDNA for initial treatment selection most common (69%). Of 40 policies addressing progression, coverage was provided 28% of the time, and of 20 policies addressing MRD, coverage was provided 65% of the time. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) was the cancer type most frequently covered for initial treatment (47%) and progression (60%). Among policies with ctDNA coverage, coverage was restricted to patients without available tissue or in whom biopsy was contraindicated in 91% of policies. MRD was commonly covered for hematologic malignancies (30%) and NSCLC (25%). Of the 14 Medicare LCD policies, 64% provided coverage for initial treatment selection and progression, and 36% for MRD. CONCLUSIONS: Some private payers and Medicare LCDs provide coverage for ctDNA testing. Private payers frequently cover testing for initial treatment, especially for NSCLC, when tissue is insufficient or biopsy is contraindicated. Coverage remains variable across payers, clinical indications, and cancer types despite inclusion in clinical guidelines, which could impact delivery of effective cancer care.

Comutations and KRASG12C Inhibitor Efficacy in Advanced NSCLC.

Molecular modifiers of KRASG12C inhibitor (KRASG12Ci) efficacy in advanced KRASG12C-mutant NSCLC are poorly defined. In a large unbiased clinicogenomic analysis of 424 patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), we identified and validated coalterations in KEAP1, SMARCA4, and CDKN2A as major independent determinants of inferior clinical outcomes with KRASG12Ci monotherapy. Collectively, comutations in these three tumor suppressor genes segregated patients into distinct prognostic subgroups and captured ∼50% of those with early disease progression (progression-free survival ≤3 months) with KRASG12Ci. Pathway-level integration of less prevalent coalterations in functionally related genes nominated PI3K/AKT/MTOR pathway and additional baseline RAS gene alterations, including amplifications, as candidate drivers of inferior outcomes with KRASG12Ci, and revealed a possible association between defective DNA damage response/repair and improved KRASG12Ci efficacy. Our findings propose a framework for patient stratification and clinical outcome prediction in KRASG12C-mutant NSCLC that can inform rational selection and appropriate tailoring of emerging combination therapies. SIGNIFICANCE: In this work, we identify co-occurring genomic alterations in KEAP1, SMARCA4, and CDKN2A as independent determinants of poor clinical outcomes with KRASG12Ci monotherapy in advanced NSCLC, and we propose a framework for patient stratification and treatment personalization based on the comutational status of individual tumors. See related commentary by Heng et al., p. 1513. This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 1501.

Osimertinib in NSCLC With Atypical EGFR-Activating Mutations: A Retrospective Multicenter Study.

Introduction: EGFR mutations drive a subset of NSCLC. Patients harboring the common EGFR mutations, deletion of exon 19 and L858R, respond well to osimertinib, a third-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitor. Nevertheless, the effect of osimertinib on NSCLC with atypical EGFR mutations is not well described. This multicenter retrospective study evaluates the efficacy of osimertinib among patients with NSCLC harboring atypical EGFR mutations. Methods: Patients with metastatic NSCLC treated with osimertinib, harboring at least one atypical EGFR mutation, excluding concurrent deletion of exon 19, L858R, or T790M mutations, from six U.S. academic cancer centers were included. Baseline clinical characteristics were collected. The primary end point was the time to treatment discontinuation (TTD) of osimertinib. Objective response rate by the Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors version 1.1 was also assessed. Results: A total of 50 patients with NSCLC with uncommon EGFR mutations were identified. The most frequent EGFR mutations were L861Q (40%, n = 18), G719X (28%, n = 14), and exon 20 insertion (14%, n = 7). The median TTD of osimertinib was 9.7 months (95% confidence interval [CI]: 6.5-12.9 mo) overall and 10.7 months (95% CI: 3.2-18.1 mo) in the first-line setting (n = 20). The objective response rate was 31.7% (95% CI: 18.1%-48.1%) overall and 41.2% (95% CI: 18.4%-67.1%) in the first-line setting. The median TTD varied among patients with L861Q (17.2 mo), G719X (7.8 mo), and exon 20 insertion (1.5 mo) mutations. Conclusions: Osimertinib has activity in patients with NSCLC harboring atypical EGFR mutations. Osimertinib activity differs by the type of atypical EGFR-activating mutation.

Primary endpoints to assess the efficacy of novel therapeutic approaches in epidermal growth factor receptor-mutated, surgically resectable non-small cell lung cancer: A review.

While the discovery of oncogenic driver mutations has personalized the metastatic non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treatment landscape with effective targeted therapies, implementation of new treatments in resectable NSCLC has been limited due to the long follow-up needed for overall survival (OS). Until recently, treatment for patients with early-stage resectable NSCLC has been limited to perioperative chemotherapy, which provides modest benefits. However, the regulatory acceptance of two surrogate endpoints for OS has allowed recent approval of both adjuvant osimertinib and atezolizumab, providing patients with new treatment options to improve outcomes. In phase 3 oncology trials, OS has historically been viewed as the gold-standard efficacy measure, but disease-free survival and event-free survival (EFS) are now validated surrogate endpoints for OS in clinical trials and should be considered when mature OS data is unavailable. Another potential surrogate endpoint in the adjuvant NSCLC setting is circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA)-based minimal residual disease (MRD), although prospective validation is needed. For neoadjuvant targeted therapies, EFS, major pathologic response and ctDNA-based MRD are potential surrogate endpoints. To fully translate the success of the personalized treatment advances in the metastatic setting to earlier-stage disease, prospective validation studies of these potential surrogate endpoints that can accelerate the evaluation of drug efficacy are needed. A collaborative effort is also needed from all clinical and regulatory parties to collate surrogate endpoint data for large-scale validation. In this review we discuss the trends in surrogate endpoints used in oncology trials, with a focus on considerations for selecting appropriate primary endpoints in early-stage resectable EGFR-mutant NSCLC, an area of unmet need for novel treatment options.

MRTX-500 Phase 2 Trial: Sitravatinib With Nivolumab in Patients With Nonsquamous NSCLC Progressing On or After Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy or Chemotherapy.

INTRODUCTION: Sitravatinib, a receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor targeting TYRO3, AXL, MERTK receptors, and vascular epithelial growth factor receptor 2, can shift the tumor microenvironment toward an immunostimulatory state. Combining sitravatinib with checkpoint inhibitors (CPIs) may augment antitumor activity. METHODS: The phase 2 MRTX-500 study evaluated sitravatinib (120 mg daily) with nivolumab (every 2 or 4 wk) in patients with advanced nonsquamous NSCLC who progressed on or after previous CPI (CPI-experienced) or chemotherapy (CPI-naive). CPI-experienced patients had a previous clinical benefit (PCB) (complete response, partial response, or stable disease for at least 12 weeks then disease progression) or no PCB (NPCB) from CPI. The primary end point was objective response rate (ORR); secondary objectives included safety and secondary efficacy end points. RESULTS: Overall, 124 CPI-experienced (NPCB, n = 35; PCB, n = 89) and 32 CPI-naive patients were treated. Investigator-assessed ORR was 11.4% in patients with NPCB, 16.9% with PCB, and 25.0% in CPI-naive. The median progression-free survival was 3.7, 5.6, and 7.1 months with NPCB, PCB, and CPI-naive, respectively; the median overall survival was 7.9 and 13.6 months with NPCB and PCB, respectively (not reached in CPI-naive patients; median follow-up 20.4 mo). Overall, (N = 156), any grade treatment-related adverse events (TRAEs) occurred in 93.6%; grade 3/4 in 58.3%. One grade 5 TRAE occurred in a CPI-naive patient. TRAEs led to treatment discontinuation in 14.1% and dose reduction or interruption in 42.9%. Biomarker analyses supported an immunostimulatory mechanism of action. CONCLUSIONS: Sitravatinib with nivolumab had a manageable safety profile. Although ORR was not met, this combination exhibited antitumor activity and encouraged survival in CPI-experienced patients with nonsquamous NSCLC.

CD73 Inhibitor Oleclumab Plus Osimertinib in Previously Treated Patients With Advanced T790M-Negative EGFR-Mutated NSCLC: A Brief Report.

INTRODUCTION: CD73 is overexpressed in EGFR-mutated NSCLC and may promote immune evasion, suggesting potential for combining CD73 blockers with EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). This phase 1b-2 study (NCT03381274) evaluated the anti-CD73 antibody oleclumab plus the third-generation EGFR TKI osimertinib in advanced EGFR-mutated NSCLC. METHODS: Patients had tissue T790M-negative NSCLC with TKI-sensitive EGFR mutations after progression on a first- or second-generation EGFR TKI and were osimertinib naive. They received osimertinib 80 mg orally once daily plus oleclumab 1500 mg (dose level 1 [DL1]) or 3000 mg (DL2) intravenously every 2 weeks. Primary end points included safety and objective response rate by Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors version 1.1. RESULTS: By July 9, 2021, five patients received DL1 and 21 received DL2. Of these patients, 60.0% and 85.7% had any-grade treatment-related adverse events (TRAEs) and 20.0% and 14.3% had grade 3 TRAEs, respectively. No dose-limiting toxicities, serious TRAEs, or deaths occurred. Four patients were T790M positive on retrospective circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) testing; three had objective partial responses. In patients who were T790M negative in tumor and ctDNA, objective response rate was 25.0% at DL1 and 11.8% at DL2 (all partial responses); response durations at DL2 were 14.8 and 16.6 months. In patients receiving DL2, excluding those who were T790M positive by ctDNA, median progression-free survival was 7.4 months, and median overall survival was 24.8 months. DL2 was the recommended phase 2 dose. CONCLUSIONS: Oleclumab plus osimertinib was found to have moderate activity with acceptable tolerability in previously treated patients with advanced EGFR-mutated NSCLC.

Phase 1 Study of Ceritinib Combined With Trametinib in Patients With Advanced ALK- or ROS1-Positive NSCLC.

Introduction: In patients with NSCLC harboring oncogenic ALK or ROS1 rearrangements, tyrosine kinase inhibitors have yielded high response rates and improvements in progression-free survival compared with cytotoxic chemotherapy; however, acquired resistance eventually develops. In preclinical models, ALK and MEK coinhibition was able to overcome ALK inhibitor resistance. Methods: A phase 1 study of the ALK/ROS1 inhibitor ceritinib and the MEK inhibitor trametinib in patients with refractory NSCLC harboring ALK or ROS1 fusions was initiated. A three plus three dose-escalation scheme was used. Two dose levels were investigated. The primary end point was to determine the safety and tolerability of the combination. Results: Nine patients (n = 8 ALK+, n = 1 ROS1+) were enrolled in the study and completed at least one cycle of therapy. The most common adverse events (all grades) were diarrhea (n = 9; 100%), rash (n = 8; 89%), abdominal pain (n = 5; 56%), and elevated aspartate transaminase/alanine transaminase level (n = 4; 44%). The overall response rate was 22%, whereas disease control rate was 56%. Median duration of response was 7.85 months. The median progression-free survival was 3.0 months (95% confidence interval: 1.5-7.0 mo). The median overall survival was 8.9 months (95% confidence interval: 2.0-not reached). Conclusions: Data from this trial indicate that the combination of ceritinib and trametinib had no unexpected toxicities and that a tolerable dose could be identified. A subset of patients seemed to obtain clinical benefit from this treatment after progression on prior ALK/ROS1 inhibitor treatment.ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03087448.

AXL and Error-Prone DNA Replication Confer Drug Resistance and Offer Strategies to Treat EGFR-Mutant Lung Cancer.

Anticancer therapies have been limited by the emergence of mutations and other adaptations. In bacteria, antibiotics activate the SOS response, which mobilizes error-prone factors that allow for continuous replication at the cost of mutagenesis. We investigated whether the treatment of lung cancer with EGFR inhibitors (EGFRi) similarly engages hypermutators. In cycling drug-tolerant persister (DTP) cells and in EGFRi-treated patients presenting residual disease, we observed upregulation of GAS6, whereas ablation of GAS6's receptor, AXL, eradicated resistance. Reciprocally, AXL overexpression enhanced DTP survival and accelerated the emergence of T790M, an EGFR mutation typical to resistant cells. Mechanistically, AXL induces low-fidelity DNA polymerases and activates their organizer, RAD18, by promoting neddylation. Metabolomics uncovered another hypermutator, AXL-driven activation of MYC, and increased purine synthesis that is unbalanced by pyrimidines. Aligning anti-AXL combination treatments with the transition from DTPs to resistant cells cured patient-derived xenografts. Hence, similar to bacteria, tumors tolerate therapy by engaging pharmacologically targetable endogenous mutators. SIGNIFICANCE: EGFR-mutant lung cancers treated with kinase inhibitors often evolve resistance due to secondary mutations. We report that in similarity to the bacterial SOS response stimulated by antibiotics, endogenous mutators are activated in drug-treated cells, and this heralds tolerance. Blocking the process prevented resistance in xenograft models, which offers new treatment strategies. This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 2483.

Deficiency of the splicing factor RBM10 limits EGFR inhibitor response in EGFR-mutant lung cancer.

Molecularly targeted cancer therapy has improved outcomes for patients with cancer with targetable oncoproteins, such as mutant EGFR in lung cancer. Yet, the long-term survival of these patients remains limited, because treatment responses are typically incomplete. One potential explanation for the lack of complete and durable responses is that oncogene-driven cancers with activating mutations of EGFR often harbor additional co-occurring genetic alterations. This hypothesis remains untested for most genetic alterations that co-occur with mutant EGFR. Here, we report the functional impact of inactivating genetic alterations of the mRNA splicing factor RNA-binding motif 10 (RBM10) that co-occur with mutant EGFR. RBM10 deficiency decreased EGFR inhibitor efficacy in patient-derived EGFR-mutant tumor models. RBM10 modulated mRNA alternative splicing of the mitochondrial apoptotic regulator Bcl-x to regulate tumor cell apoptosis during treatment. Genetic inactivation of RBM10 diminished EGFR inhibitor-mediated apoptosis by decreasing the ratio of (proapoptotic) Bcl-xS to (antiapoptotic) Bcl-xL isoforms of Bcl-x. RBM10 deficiency was a biomarker of poor response to EGFR inhibitor treatment in clinical samples. Coinhibition of Bcl-xL and mutant EGFR overcame the resistance induced by RBM10 deficiency. This study sheds light on the role of co-occurring genetic alterations and on the effect of splicing factor deficiency on the modulation of sensitivity to targeted kinase inhibitor cancer therapy.

Small-molecule targeted therapies induce dependence on DNA double-strand break repair in residual tumor cells.

Residual cancer cells that survive drug treatments with targeted therapies act as a reservoir from which eventual resistant disease emerges. Although there is great interest in therapeutically targeting residual cells, efforts are hampered by our limited knowledge of the vulnerabilities existing in this cell state. Here, we report that diverse oncogene-targeted therapies, including inhibitors of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK), KRAS, and BRAF, induce DNA double-strand breaks and, consequently, ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM)-dependent DNA repair in oncogene-matched residual tumor cells. This DNA damage response, observed in cell lines, mouse xenograft models, and human patients, is driven by a pathway involving the activation of caspases 3 and 7 and the downstream caspase-activated deoxyribonuclease (CAD). CAD is, in turn, activated through caspase-mediated degradation of its endogenous inhibitor, ICAD. In models of EGFR mutant non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), tumor cells that survive treatment with small-molecule EGFR-targeted therapies are thus synthetically dependent on ATM, and combined treatment with an ATM kinase inhibitor eradicates these cells in vivo. This led to more penetrant and durable responses in EGFR mutant NSCLC mouse xenograft models, including those derived from both established cell lines and patient tumors. Last, we found that rare patients with EGFR mutant NSCLC harboring co-occurring, loss-of-function mutations in ATM exhibit extended progression-free survival on first generation EGFR inhibitor therapy relative to patients with EGFR mutant NSCLC lacking deleterious ATM mutations. Together, these findings establish a rationale for the mechanism-based integration of ATM inhibitors alongside existing targeted therapies.

Changes in older adults' life space during lung cancer treatment: A mixed methods cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Maintenance of function during cancer treatment is important to older adults. Characteristics associated with pretreatment life-space mobility and changes during non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treatment remain unknown. METHODS: This mixed methods cohort study recruited adults age ≥65 with advanced NSCLC starting palliative chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and/or targeted therapy from a Comprehensive Cancer Center, Veterans Affairs, and safety-net clinic. Patients completed geriatric assessments including Life-Space Assessment (LSA) pretreatment and at 1, 2, 4, and 6 months after treatment initiation. LSA scores range from 0 to 120 (greater mobility); LSA <60 is considered restricted. We used mixed-effects models to examine pretreatment LSA, change from 0 to 1 month, and change from 1 to 6 months. A subgroup participated in semistructured interviews pretreatment and at 2 and 6 months to understand the patient experience of life-space change. For each interview participant, we created joint displays of longitudinal LSA scores juxtaposed with illustrative quotes. RESULTS: Among 93 patients, median age was 73 (range 65-94). Mean pretreatment LSA score was 67.1. On average, LSA declined 10.1 points from pretreatment to 1 month and remained stable at 6 months. Pretreatment LSA score was associated with several demographic, clinical, geriatric assessment, and symptom characteristics. LSA decline at 1 month was greater among patients with high anxiety (slope = -12.6 vs. -2.3, p = 0.048). Pretreatment body mass index <21 kg/m2 was associated with LSA improvement from 1 to 6 months (slope = 4.1 vs. -0.04, p = 0.003). Joint displays illustrated the impact of different life-space trajectories on patients' lives in their words. CONCLUSION: Older adults with NSCLC have low pretreatment life space with many developing restricted life space during treatment. Incorporating life-space assessments into clinical cancer care may help older adults concretely visualize how treatment might impact their daily function to allow for informed decision making and identify early changes in mobility to implement supportive interventions.

Small Cell Lung Cancer, Version 2.2022, NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology.

The NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology (NCCN Guidelines) for Small Cell Lung Cancer (SCLC) provide recommended management for patients with SCLC, including diagnosis, primary treatment, surveillance for relapse, and subsequent treatment. This selection for the journal focuses on metastatic (known as extensive-stage) SCLC, which is more common than limited-stage SCLC. Systemic therapy alone can palliate symptoms and prolong survival in most patients with extensive-stage disease. Smoking cessation counseling and intervention should be strongly promoted in patients with SCLC and other high-grade neuroendocrine carcinomas. The "Summary of the Guidelines Updates" section in the SCLC algorithm outlines the most recent revisions for the 2022 update, which are described in greater detail in this revised Discussion text.

Profiling Sensitivity to Targeted Therapies in EGFR-Mutant NSCLC Patient-Derived Organoids.

Novel 3D cancer organoid cultures derived from clinical patient specimens represent an important model system to evaluate intratumor heterogeneity and treatment response to targeted inhibitors in cancer. Pioneering work in gastrointestinal and pancreatic cancers has highlighted the promise of patient-derived organoids (PDOs) as a patient-proximate culture system, with an increasing number of models emerging. Similarly, work in other cancer types has focused on establishing organoid models and optimizing culture protocols. Notably, 3D cancer organoid models maintain the genetic complexity of original tumor specimens and thus translate tumor-derived sequencing data into treatment with genetically informed targeted therapies in an experimental setting. Further, PDOs might foster the evaluation of rational combination treatments to overcome resistance-associated adaptation of tumors in the future. The latter focuses on intense research efforts in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), as resistance development ultimately limits the treatment success of targeted inhibitors. An early assessment of therapeutically targetable mechanisms using NSCLC PDOs could help inform rational combination treatments. This manuscript describes a standardized protocol for the cell culture plate-based assessment of drug sensitivities to targeted inhibitors in NSCLC-derived 3D PDOs, with potential adaptability to combinational treatments and other treatment modalities.

Efficacy and Safety of Rociletinib Versus Chemotherapy in Patients With EGFR-Mutated NSCLC: The Results of TIGER-3, a Phase 3 Randomized Study.

INTRODUCTION: The TIGER-3 (NCT02322281) study was initiated to compare the efficacy and safety of rociletinib, a third-generation EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) that targets EGFR T790M and common EGFR-activating mutations, versus chemotherapy in patients with NSCLC who progressed on first- or second-generation EGFR TKIs. METHODS: Patients with advanced or metastatic EGFR-mutated NSCLC with disease progression on standard therapy (previous EGFR TKI and platinum-based chemotherapy) were randomized to oral rociletinib (500 or 625 mg twice daily) or single-agent chemotherapy (pemetrexed, gemcitabine, docetaxel, or paclitaxel). RESULTS: Enrollment was halted when rociletinib development was discontinued in 2016. Of 149 enrolled patients, 75 were randomized to rociletinib (n = 53: 500 mg twice daily; n = 22: 625 mg twice daily) and 74 to chemotherapy. The median investigator-assessed progression-free survival (PFS) was 4.1 months (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.6-5.4) in the rociletinib 500-mg group and 5.5 months (95% CI: 1.8-8.1) in the 625-mg group versus 2.5 months (95% CI: 1.4-2.9) in the chemotherapy group. An improved PFS was observed in patients with T790M-positive NSCLC treated with rociletinib (n = 25; 500 mg and 625 mg twice daily) versus chemotherapy (n = 20; 6.8 versus 2.7 mo; hazard ratio = 0.55, 95% CI: 0.28-1.07, p = 0.074). Grade 3 or higher hyperglycemia (24.0%), corrected QT prolongation (6.7%), diarrhea (2.7%), and vomiting (1.3%) were more frequent with rociletinib than chemotherapy (0%, 0%, 1.4%, and 0%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Rociletinib had a more favorable median PFS versus chemotherapy but had higher rates of hyperglycemia and corrected QT prolongation in patients with advanced EGFR-mutated NSCLC who progressed on previous EGFR TKI. Incomplete enrollment prevented evaluation of the primary efficacy end point.

Molecular Risk Stratification is Independent of EGFR Mutation Status in Identifying Early-Stage Non-Squamous Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Patients at Risk for Recurrence and Likely to Benefit From Adjuvant Chemotherapy.

BACKGROUND: A clinically-certified gene expression profile improved survival in a cohort of stage I-IIA NSCLC patients by identifying those likely to benefit from adjuvant intervention. EGFR mutation status has not provided this type of predictive risk discrimination in stage IA NSCLC, and overtreatment of low-risk stage IB patients may have limited the overall benefit seen recently in the adjuvant application of a third-generation TKI. We compared EGFR mutation data to molecular risk stratification in a prospective, early-stage cohort. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Two hundred fifty eligible stage I-IIA non-squamous NSCLC patients underwent prospective molecular risk stratification by the 14-gene prognostic assay. Platinum doublet adjuvant chemotherapy (AC) was recommended for molecular high-risk (MHR). Differences in freedom from recurrence (FFR) and disease-free survival (DFS) were evaluated. RESULTS: At 29 months, prospective molecular testing yielded an estimated FFR of 94.6% and 72.4% in low-risk and untreated MHR patients, respectively, and 97.0% among MHR patients receiving AC (P < .001). In contrast, there was no association between EGFR status and recurrence, while molecular risk predicted survival and response to AC within both the EGFR mutation(+) and mutation(-) populations. Sixty-seven percent of EGFR(+) and 49% of EGFR(-) patients were molecular low-risk. CONCLUSION: This prospective study demonstrates the utility of the 14-gene assay independent of EGFR mutation. Basing adjuvant intervention in early-stage NSCLC on EGFR status alone may undertreat up to 51% of EGFR(-) patients likely to benefit from adjuvant intervention, and overtreat as many as 67% of EGFR(+) patients more likely to be free of residual disease.