If the skull fits: magnetic resonance imaging and microcomputed tomography for combined analysis of brain and skull phenotypes in the mouse.

The mammalian brain and skull develop concurrently in a coordinated manner, consistently producing a brain and skull that fit tightly together. It is common that abnormalities in one are associated with related abnormalities in the other. However, this is not always the case. A complete characterization of the relationship between brain and skull phenotypes is necessary to understand the mechanisms that cause them to be coordinated or divergent and to provide perspective on the potential diagnostic or prognostic significance of brain and skull phenotypes. We demonstrate the combined use of magnetic resonance imaging and microcomputed tomography for analysis of brain and skull phenotypes in the mouse. Co-registration of brain and skull images allows comparison of the relationship between phenotypes in the brain and those in the skull. We observe a close fit between the brain and skull of two genetic mouse models that both show abnormal brain and skull phenotypes. Application of these three-dimensional image analyses in a broader range of mouse mutants will provide a map of the relationships between brain and skull phenotypes generally and allow characterization of patterns of similarities and differences.

Multiple developmental programs are altered by loss of Zic1 and Zic4 to cause Dandy-Walker malformation cerebellar pathogenesis.

Heterozygous deletions encompassing the ZIC1;ZIC4 locus have been identified in a subset of individuals with the common cerebellar birth defect Dandy-Walker malformation (DWM). Deletion of Zic1 and Zic4 in mice produces both cerebellar size and foliation defects similar to human DWM, confirming a requirement for these genes in cerebellar development and providing a model to delineate the developmental basis of this clinically important congenital malformation. Here, we show that reduced cerebellar size in Zic1 and Zic4 mutants results from decreased postnatal granule cell progenitor proliferation. Through genetic and molecular analyses, we show that Zic1 and Zic4 have Shh-dependent function promoting proliferation of granule cell progenitors. Expression of the Shh-downstream genes Ptch1, Gli1 and Mycn was downregulated in Zic1/4 mutants, although Shh production and Purkinje cell gene expression were normal. Reduction of Shh dose on the Zic1(+/-);Zic4(+/-) background also resulted in cerebellar size reductions and gene expression changes comparable with those observed in Zic1(-/-);Zic4(-/-) mice. Zic1 and Zic4 are additionally required to pattern anterior vermis foliation. Zic mutant folial patterning abnormalities correlated with disrupted cerebellar anlage gene expression and Purkinje cell topography during late embryonic stages; however, this phenotype was Shh independent. In Zic1(+/-);Zic4(+/-);Shh(+/-), we observed normal cerebellar anlage patterning and foliation. Furthermore, cerebellar patterning was normal in both Gli2-cko and Smo-cko mutant mice, where all Shh function was removed from the developing cerebellum. Thus, our data demonstrate that Zic1 and Zic4 have both Shh-dependent and -independent roles during cerebellar development and that multiple developmental disruptions underlie Zic1/4-related DWM.

The role of activating protein 1 in the transcriptional regulation of the human FCGR2B promoter mediated by the -343 G -> C polymorphism associated with systemic lupus erythematosus.

The inhibitory receptor FcgammaRIIb is a negative regulator of antibody production and inflammatory responses. The -343 G --> C polymorphism in the human FCGR2B promoter is associated with systemic lupus erythematosus. The -343 C mutant promoter has decreased transcriptional activity. In the present study, we show that the transcriptional change correlates with quantitative differences in the interaction of the activating protein 1 complex with the mutant FCGR2B promoter. Promoter pulldown and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated binding of c-Jun to the FCGR2B promoter. Phosphorylation of c-Jun was accompanied by transactivation of both FCGR2B promoter variants, whereas dephosphorylation of c-Jun by an inhibitor of c-Jun N-terminal kinase, markedly decreased the promoter activities. The -343 G --> C substitution enabled the specific interaction of the transcription factor Yin-Yang 1 with the mutant FCGR2B promoter. Yin-Yang 1 competed with activating protein 1 for binding at the -343 site, and contributed to the repression of the mutant FCGR2B promoter activity. This mechanism could be responsible for the decreased expression of FcgammaRIIb associated with the -343 C/C homozygous FCGR2B genotype in lupus patients. These findings provide a rationale for the transcriptional defect mediated by the -343 C/C FCGR2B promoter polymorphism associated with systemic lupus erythematosus, and add to our understanding of the complex transcriptional regulation of the human FCGR2B promoter.

In ovo electroporations of HH stage 10 chicken embryos.

Large size and external development of the chicken embryo have long made it a valuable tool in the study of developmental biology. With the advent of molecular biological techniques, the chick has become a useful system in which to study gene regulation and function. By electroporating DNA or RNA constructs into the developing chicken embryo, genes can be expressed or knocked down in order to analyze in vivo gene function. Similarly, reporter constructs can be used for fate mapping or to examine putative gene regulatory elements. Compared to similar experiments in mouse, chick electroporation has the advantages of being quick, easy and inexpensive. This video demonstrates first how to make a window in the eggshell to manipulate the embryo. Next, the embryo is visualized with a dilute solution of India ink injected below the embryo. A glass needle and pipette are used to inject DNA and Fast Green dye into the developing neural tube, then platinum electrodes are placed parallel to the embryo and short electrical pulses are administered with a pulse generator. Finally, the egg is sealed with tape and placed back into an incubator for further development. Additionally, the video shows proper egg storage and handling and discusses possible causes of embryo loss following electroporation.

Regulated expression of FcgammaR in human dendritic cells controls cross-presentation of antigen-antibody complexes.

Receptors for IgG (FcgammaR) expressed in dendritic cells (DCs) influence the initiation of Ab-mediated immunity. Dynamic variations in FcgammaR expression allow DCs to adjust their capacity to capture Ab-opsonized Ag. The current paradigm predicts a progressive decline in FcgammaR-mediated phagocytic function upon DC maturation. Surprisingly, we find that expression of the phagocytic receptor FcgammaRIIa is preserved in immature and mature DCs at comparable levels with macrophages. Moreover, phagocytosis of antigenic peptides directed to FcgammaRIIa on DCs leads to dramatic increases in Ag cross-presentation and T cell activation. In immature DCs, high expression of inhibitory FcgammaRIIb correlates with decreased uptake and cross-presentation of Ab-Ag complexes. In contrast, engagement of FcgammaRIIb is not associated with changes in cross-presentation in mature DCs. We provide evidence that FcgammaRIIb expression is patently reduced in mature DCs, an effect that is modulated by treatment with cytokines. The regulated expression of activating and inhibitory FcgammaRs in DCs emerges as a critical checkpoint in the process of Ag uptake and cross-presentation.

Decreased transcription of the human FCGR2B gene mediated by the -343 G/C promoter polymorphism and association with systemic lupus erythematosus.

The role for inhibitory Fc gamma receptors class IIb (FcgammaRIIb) in the onset, progression and severity of several animal models of autoimmune diseases is well established. By contrast, the pathogenic potential of FcgammaRIIb in human autoimmune diseases remains largely unknown. Here we report the identification of a polymorphism in the human FCGR2B promoter (dbSNP no. rs3219018) that is associated in homozygosity with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) phenotype in European-Americans (OR=11.1, P=0.003). Experimental evidence correlates the polymorphism (a G-C substitution at position -343 relative to the start of transcription) with altered FcgammaRIIb expression and function. The G-C substitution correlated with decreased transcription of the FCGR2B promoter, and resulted in decreased binding of the AP1 transcription complex to the mutant promoter sequence. The surface expression of FcgammaRIIb receptors was significantly reduced in activated B cells from (-343 C/C) SLE patients. These findings suggest that genetic defects may lead to deregulated expression of the FCGR2B gene in -343 C/C homozygous subjects, and may play a role in the pathogenesis of human SLE.

Cytokine-mediated regulation of activating and inhibitory Fc gamma receptors in human monocytes.

Fc gamma receptors (Fc gammaR) trigger inflammatory reactions in response to immunoglobulin-opsonized pathogens and antigen-antibody complexes. The coordinate expression of activating and inhibitory Fc gammaR ensures the homeostasis of immune complex-driven inflammatory responses. In this study, we used antibodies with preferential binding for activating Fc gammaRIIa and inhibitory Fc gammaRIIb receptors to investigate the expression and regulation of Fc gammaRII isoforms in human monocytes. Cross-linking of Fc gammaRIIa triggered phagocytosis and cytokine production. Cross-linking of Fc gammaRIIb was associated with phosphorylation of the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif and with a marked reduction in monocyte effector functions. Our study revealed that tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin (IL)-10, and IL-13 altered the transcriptional activity of the Fc gammaRIIB promoter in transfected cell lines and skewed the balance of activating versus inhibitory Fc gammaR in human monocytes. TNF-alpha decreased the expression of inhibitory Fc gammaRIIb. IL-10 up-regulated all classes of Fc gammaR and induced alternative activation in monocytes, an effect that was synergistic with that of TNF-alpha. In contrast, IL-4 and IL-13, in combination with TNF-alpha, decreased the expression of activating Fc gammaR and markedly down-regulated Fc gammaR-mediated function. Our findings suggest that the cytokine milieu can induce changes in the relative expression of Fc gammaR with opposing function and thus, may regulate the amplitude of Fc gammaR-mediated uptake and inflammation.