ABSTRACT
Generation and control of eye movements requires the participation of the cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum and brainstem. The signals of this complex neural network finally converge on the ocular motoneurons of the brainstem. Infarct or hemorrhage at any level of the oculomotor system (though more frequent in the brain-stem) may give rise to a broad spectrum of eye movement abnormalities (EMAs). Consequently, neurologists and particularly stroke neurologists are routinely confronted with EMAs, some of which may be overlooked in the acute stroke setting and others that, when recognized, may have a high localizing value. The most complex EMAs are due to midbrain stroke. Horizontal gaze disorders, some of them manifesting unusual patterns, may occur in pontine stroke. Distinct varieties of nystagmus occur in cerebellar and medullary stroke. This review summarizes the most representative EMAs from the supratentorial level to the brainstem.
Subject(s)
Ocular Motility Disorders/etiology , Stroke/complications , Humans , Ocular Motility Disorders/diagnosis , Stroke/diagnosisSubject(s)
Brain Ischemia/complications , Brain/pathology , Stroke , Brain Infarction/etiology , Brain Infarction/pathology , Carotid Artery Diseases/pathology , Cerebral Arterial Diseases/pathology , Humans , Magnetic Resonance Imaging/methods , Stroke/classification , Stroke/diagnosis , Stroke/etiology , Tomography, X-Ray Computed/methodsABSTRACT
The risk factors for deep venous thrombosis (and for cerebral vein and sinus thrombosis, CVST) differ from those for arterial disease. The risk factors for venous thrombosis are linked to the Virchow triad of stasis of the blood, changes in the vessel wall, and changes in the composition of the blood, especially the first and third of these. Risk factors are usually divided into acquired (e.g. surgery, trauma, pregnancy, puerperium, lupus anticoagulant, malignant disease, and female hormones) and genetic (congenital thrombophilia). However, the separation of genetic and acquired risk factors is somewhat artificial, since they have additive effects and venous thrombosis is often multifactorial. In this review, we discuss acquired risk factors for CVST. These include hormonal changes (e.g. oral contraceptives use, hormone replacement therapy, pregnancy and puerperium), mechanical precipitants (e.g. head trauma, jugular catheterization, surgery, lumbar puncture), local and generalized infections, cancer, acquired prothrombotic states (e.g. hyperhomocysteinemia, nephrotic syndrome), inflammatory diseases (e.g. vaculitis, intestinal inflammatory disease), hematological disorders, neurological diseases (e.g. dural arteriovenous malformations, spontaneous intracranial hypotension), drugs and other situations. However, only some conditions are consistently present in case series, while many appear only in anecdotal reports. Thus, in most situations, a causal link cannot be established. Determining a cause-and-effect relationship is essential for developing preventive, diagnostic, and therapeutic strategies. Therefore, further multicentered, case-controlled studies are crucial for better understanding the pathogenesis of CVST.
Subject(s)
Cerebral Veins/pathology , Risk Factors , Sinus Thrombosis, Intracranial/etiology , Venous Thrombosis/etiology , Venous Thrombosis/pathology , HumansABSTRACT
Post-stroke depression (PSD) is among the most common emotional disorders afflicting stroke sufferers. Approximately one third of stroke survivors experience an early or later onset of depression. PSD impedes the rehabilitation and recovery process, jeopardizes quality of life and increases mortality. Diagnosis of PSD is challenging in the acute and chronic aftermath. Therefore, it often remains unrecognized and/or undertreated. The interaction between depression and stroke is very complex and the pathophysiological mechanisms have not as yet been fully elucidated, although an interaction between anatomical and psychosocial factors may be important in PSD development. Neurochemical changes and clinical findings are similar to endogenous depression. PSD is potentially treatable, although no conclusive benefits of antidepressant agents and nonpharmacological interventions have been observed. The efficacy of preventive strategies in PSD remains essentially undetermined.
Subject(s)
Depression/etiology , Stroke/complications , Depression/diagnosis , Depression/epidemiology , Depression/therapy , Diagnosis, Differential , Humans , Risk Factors , Stroke/epidemiologyABSTRACT
PURPOSE OF REVIEW: All functional classes of eye movements require exquisite coordination between cortical, basal ganglia and brainstem centers involved in ocular motor control. Vertebrobasilar stroke may produce a wide spectum of isolated or combined eye-movement disorders. The intent of this article is to summarize the curent knowledge of eye-movement disorders occurring in infarcts involving the different arterial territories of the vertebrobasilar circulation. RECENT FINDINGS: In the last few years there has been an improvement in our understanding of pathophysiological mechanisms that are related mainly to abnormal vergence disorders due to thalamic-subthalamic infarcts, as well as of the peculiar symptoms resulting from otolith pathway involvement occurring in lateral medullary infarcts. Moreover, progress in neuroimaging technology has implicated neurovascular contact of the trochlear nerve in instances of superior oblique myokimia. SUMMARY: Eye-movement disorders commonly occur in vertebrobasilar stroke, although they are often unappreciated. They may make it possible to establish specific anatomical correlates, as well as the probable nature of the underlying pathology.
Subject(s)
Ocular Motility Disorders/etiology , Vertebrobasilar Insufficiency/complications , Basal Ganglia/physiopathology , Brain Stem/physiopathology , Cerebral Cortex/physiopathology , Humans , Neural Pathways/physiopathology , Ocular Motility Disorders/diagnosis , Ocular Motility Disorders/physiopathology , Syndrome , Vertebrobasilar Insufficiency/diagnosis , Vertebrobasilar Insufficiency/physiopathologyABSTRACT
Datos recientes sugieren que el impacto de la Hipertensión Arterial (HTA) ha sido probablemente exagerado y el rol de la enfermedad cardíaca y de la aterosclerosis de grandes vasos subestimado respecto de la patogenia de los pequeños (<1.5 cm) infartos de las arterias penetrantes profundas. En otras palabras, se puede decir que una arteriolopatía primaria local es menos importante de lo que se pensaba en el pasado, y que la embolia puede tener un rol más considerable que el que se le atribuía anteriormente.El tamaño máximo aceptado para un infarto pequeño (o sea "lacunar") ha sido fijado en 1.5 cm. Dentro de ese limite, parece apropiado considerar que las lagunas muy pequeñas (<0,5 cm) --habitualmente asintomáticas--, tienen una fuerte asociación con la arteriolopatia hipertensiva, pero las mas grandes y sintomáticas (0.5-1.5 cm) tienen un origen mucho más diverso. Como ni los sindromes clínicos ni los estudios de TC o RMI diferencian las causas de los diferentes infartos lacunares, parece aconsejable la búsqueda sistemática de enfermedad asociada de grandes vasos (estudios arteriales no invasivos), así como de posible embolia cardiogénica (ECG, ecocardiografía y Holter de ser necesario), tanto como en los infartos cerebrales
Subject(s)
Arteriosclerosis/complications , Cerebral Infarction/physiopathology , Hypertension/complications , Embolism/complications , Intracranial Embolism and Thrombosis/epidemiology , Thrombolytic Therapy/adverse effects , Brain Ischemia/drug therapy , Dicumarol/adverse effects , Cerebral Hemorrhage/chemically induced , Heparin/adverse effects , Cerebral Infarction/pathology , Cerebral Infarction/diagnosis , Tomography, X-Ray Computed , Intracranial Embolism and Thrombosis/physiopathology , Intracranial Embolism and Thrombosis/pathology , Causality , Diabetes Mellitus/complications , Thrombolytic Therapy/statistics & numerical data , Dicumarol/therapeutic use , Risk Factors , Hematoma, Subdural/etiologyABSTRACT
Las complicaciones mayores de la anticoagulación son actualmente bien conocidas, y todos los resultados de la literatura sugieren que ellas no son despreciables. Por el contrario, las ventajas cerebrovasculares de estos tratamientos todavía no están bien definidas, y la anticoagulación debería ser motivo de más estudios controlados. En este contexto, debido a las complicaciones cerebrales de la anticoagulación, nos parece que la indicación de tal tratamiento es mas una excepción que una regla en el ACV isquémico. Mientras se esperan los resultados de los estudios controlados en curso, las indicaciones de anticoagulación eventual deben ser ponderadas individualmente teniendo en cuenta las características propias del paciente
Subject(s)
Thrombolytic Therapy/adverse effects , Dicumarol/adverse effects , Cerebral Hemorrhage/chemically induced , Cerebral Infarction/complications , Brain Ischemia/drug therapy , Anticoagulants/adverse effects , Anticoagulants/drug therapy , Heparin/adverse effects , Cerebral Hemorrhage/epidemiology , Hematoma, Subdural , Dicumarol/therapeutic use , Subarachnoid Hemorrhage , Thrombolytic Therapy/statistics & numerical data , Cerebral Infarction/complications , Risk FactorsABSTRACT
Datos recientes sugieren que el impacto de la Hipertensión Arterial (HTA) ha sido probablemente exagerado y el rol de la enfermedad cardíaca y de la aterosclerosis de grandes vasos subestimado respecto de la patogenia de los pequeños (<1.5 cm) infartos de las arterias penetrantes profundas. En otras palabras, se puede decir que una arteriolopatía primaria local es menos importante de lo que se pensaba en el pasado, y que la embolia puede tener un rol más considerable que el que se le atribuía anteriormente.El tamaño máximo aceptado para un infarto pequeño (o sea "lacunar") ha sido fijado en 1.5 cm. Dentro de ese limite, parece apropiado considerar que las lagunas muy pequeñas (<0,5 cm) --habitualmente asintomáticas--, tienen una fuerte asociación con la arteriolopatia hipertensiva, pero las mas grandes y sintomáticas (0.5-1.5 cm) tienen un origen mucho más diverso. Como ni los sindromes clínicos ni los estudios de TC o RMI diferencian las causas de los diferentes infartos lacunares, parece aconsejable la búsqueda sistemática de enfermedad asociada de grandes vasos (estudios arteriales no invasivos), así como de posible embolia cardiogénica (ECG, ecocardiografía y Holter de ser necesario), tanto como en los infartos cerebrales
Subject(s)
Arteriosclerosis/complications , Dicumarol/adverse effects , Heparin/adverse effects , Intracranial Embolism and Thrombosis/epidemiology , Cerebral Hemorrhage/chemically induced , Cerebral Infarction/physiopathology , Brain Ischemia/drug therapy , Embolism/complications , Hypertension/complications , Thrombolytic Therapy/adverse effects , Dicumarol/therapeutic use , Intracranial Embolism and Thrombosis/physiopathology , Intracranial Embolism and Thrombosis/pathology , Cerebral Infarction/diagnosis , Cerebral Infarction/pathology , Causality , Risk Factors , Diabetes Mellitus/complications , Hematoma, Subdural/etiology , Thrombolytic Therapy/statistics & numerical data , Tomography, X-Ray ComputedABSTRACT
Las complicaciones mayores de la anticoagulación son actualmente bien conocidas, y todos los resultados de la literatura sugieren que ellas no son despreciables. Por el contrario, las ventajas cerebrovasculares de estos tratamientos todavía no están bien definidas, y la anticoagulación debería ser motivo de más estudios controlados. En este contexto, debido a las complicaciones cerebrales de la anticoagulación, nos parece que la indicación de tal tratamiento es mas una excepción que una regla en el ACV isquémico. Mientras se esperan los resultados de los estudios controlados en curso, las indicaciones de anticoagulación eventual deben ser ponderadas individualmente teniendo en cuenta las características propias del paciente