DNA damage signalling histone H2AX is required for tumour growth.

Cancer most frequently develops in self-renewal tissues that are the target of genetic alterations due to mutagens or intrinsic DNA replication errors. Histone γH2AX has a critical role in the cellular DNA repair pathway cascade and contributes to genomic stability. However, the role of γH2AX in the ontology of cancer is unclear. We have investigated this issue in the epidermis, a self-renewal epithelium continuously exposed to genetic hazard and replication stress. Silencing H2AX caused cell cycle hyperactivation, impaired DNA repair and epidermal hyperplasia in the skin. However, mutagen-induced carcinogenesis was strikingly reduced in the absence of H2AX. KO tumours appeared significantly later than controls and were fewer, smaller and more benign. The stem cell marker Δp63 drastically diminished in the KO epidermis. We conclude that H2AX is required for tissue-making during both homoeostasis and tumourigenesis, possibly by contributing to the control and repair of stem cells. Therefore, although H2AX is thought to act as a tumour suppressor and our results show that it contributes to homeostasis, they also indicate that it is required for the development of cancer.

Scaffold coupling: ERK activation by trans-phosphorylation across different scaffold protein species.

RAS-ERK (extracellular signal-regulated kinase) pathway signals are modulated by scaffold proteins that assemble the components of different kinase tiers into a sequential phosphorylation cascade. In the prevailing model scaffold proteins function as isolated entities, where the flux of phosphorylation events progresses downstream linearly, to achieve ERK phosphorylation. We show that different types of scaffold proteins, specifically KSR1 (kinase suppressor of Ras 1) and IQGAP1 (IQ motif-containing guanosine triphosphatase activating protein 1), can bind to each other, forming a complex whereby phosphorylation reactions occur across both species. MEK (mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase) bound to IQGAP1 can phosphorylate ERK docked at KSR1, a process that we have named "trans-phosphorylation." We also reveal that ERK trans-phosphorylation participates in KSR1-regulated adipogenesis, and it also underlies the modest cytotoxicity exhibited by KSR-directed inhibitors. Overall, we identify interactions between scaffold proteins and trans-phosphorylation as an additional level of regulation in the ERK cascade, with broad implications in signaling and the design of scaffold protein-aimed therapeutics.

Combination of Resminostat with Ruxolitinib Exerts Antitumor Effects in the Chick Embryo Chorioallantoic Membrane Model for Cutaneous T Cell Lymphoma.

The combination of Resminostat (HDACi) and Ruxolitinib (JAKi) exerted cytotoxic effects and inhibited proliferation of CTCL cell lines (MyLa, SeAx) in previously published work. A xenograft tumor formation was produced by implanting the MyLa or SeAx cells on top of the chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM). The CAM assay protocol was developed to monitor the metastatic properties of CTCL cells and the effects of Resminostat and/or Ruxolitinib in vivo. In the spontaneous CAM assays, Resminostat and Ruxolitinib treatment inhibited the cell proliferation (p < 0.001) of MyLa and SeAx, and induced cell apoptosis (p < 0.005, p < 0.001, respectively). Although monotherapies reduced the size of primary tumors in the metastasis CAM assay, the drug combination exhibited a significant inhibition of primary tumor size (p < 0.0001). Furthermore, the combined treatment inhibited the intravasation of MyLa (p < 0.005) and SeAx cells (p < 0.0001) in the organs, as well as their extravasation to the liver (p < 0.0001) and lung (p < 0.0001). The drug combination also exerted a stronger inhibitory effect in migration (p < 0.0001) rather in invasion (p < 0.005) of both MyLa and SeAx cells. It further reduced p-p38, p-ERK, p-AKT, and p-STAT in MyLa cells, while it decreased p-ERK and p-STAT in SeAx cells in CAM tumors. Our data demonstrated that the CAM assay could be employed as a preclinical in vivo model in CTCL for pharmacological testing. In agreement with previous in vitro data, the combination of Resminostat and Ruxolitinib was shown to exert antitumor effects in CTCL in vivo.

PLCγ1/PKCθ Downstream Signaling Controls Cutaneous T-Cell Lymphoma Development and Progression.

Developing mechanistic rationales can improve the clinical management of cutaneous T-cell lymphomas. There is considerable genetic and biological evidence of a malignant network of signaling mechanisms, highly influenced by deregulated TCR/PLCγ1 activity, controlling the biology of these lesions. In addition, activated signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 is associated with clinical progression, although the alterations responsible for this have not been fully elucidated. Here, we studied PLCγ1-dependent mechanisms that can mediate STAT3 activation and control tumor growth and progression. Downstream of PLCγ1, the pharmacological inhibition and genetic knockdown of protein kinase C theta (PKCθ) inhibited signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 activation, impaired proliferation, and promoted apoptosis in cutaneous T-cell lymphoma cells. A PKCθ-dependent transcriptome in mycosis fungoides/Sézary syndrome cells revealed potential effector genes controlling cytokine signaling, TP53, and actin cytoskeleton dynamics. Consistently, an in vivo chicken embryo model xenografted with mycosis fungoides cells showed that PKCθ blockage abrogates tumor growth and spread to distant organs. Finally, the expression of a number of PKCθ target genes found in mycosis fungoides cells significantly correlated with that of PRKCQ (PKCθ) in 81 human mycosis fungoides samples. In summary, PKCθ can play a central role in the activation of malignant cutaneous T-cell lymphoma mechanisms via multiple routes, including, but not restricted to, STAT3. These mechanisms may, in turn, serve as targets for specific therapies.

RAC1 Activation as a Potential Therapeutic Option in Metastatic Cutaneous Melanoma.

Metastasis is a complex process by which cancer cells escape from the primary tumor to colonize distant organs. RAC1 is a member of the RHO family of small guanosine triphosphatases that plays an important role in cancer migration, invasion, angiogenesis and metastasis. RAC1 activation has been related to most cancers, such as cutaneous melanoma, breast, lung, and pancreatic cancer. RAC1P29S driver mutation appears in a significant number of cutaneous melanoma cases. Likewise, RAC1 is overexpressed or hyperactivated via signaling through oncogenic cell surface receptors. Thus, targeting RAC1 represents a promising strategy for cutaneous melanoma therapy, as well as for inhibition of other signaling activation that promotes resistance to targeted therapies. In this review, we focus on the role of RAC1 in metastatic cutaneous melanoma emphasizing the anti-metastatic potential of RAC1- targeting drugs.

Extending the Applicability of In Ovo and Ex Ovo Chicken Chorioallantoic Membrane Assays to Study Cytostatic Activity in Neuroblastoma Cells.

PURPOSE: The chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay can provide an alternative versatile, cost-effective, and ethically less controversial in vivo model for reliable screening of drugs. In the presented work, we demonstrate that CAM assay (in ovo and ex ovo) can be simply employed to delineate the effects of cisplatin (CDDP) and ellipticine (Elli) on neuroblastoma (Nbl) cells in terms of their growth and metastatic potential. METHODS: The Nbl UKF-NB-4 cell line was established from recurrent bone marrow metastases of high-risk Nbl (stage IV, MYCN amplification, 7q21 gain). Ex ovo and in ovo CAM assays were optimized to evaluate the antimetastatic activity of CDDP and Elli. Immunohistochemistry, qRT-PCR, and DNA isolation were performed. RESULTS: Ex ovo CAM assay was employed to study whether CDDP and Elli exhibit any inhibitory effects on growth of Nbl xenograft in ex ovo CAM assay. Under the optimal conditions, Elli and CDDP exhibited significant inhibition of the size of the primary tumor. To study the efficiency of CDDP and Elli to inhibit primary Nbl tumor growth, intravasation, and extravasation in the organs, we adapted the in ovo CAM assay protocol. In in ovo CAM assay, both studied compounds (CDDP and Elli) exhibited significant (p < 0.001) inhibitory activity against extravasation to all investigated organs including distal CAM. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, CAM assay could be a helpful and highly efficient in vivo approach for high-throughput screening of libraries of compounds with expected anticancer activities.

Metallothionein-3 promotes cisplatin chemoresistance remodelling in neuroblastoma.

Metallothionein-3 has poorly characterized functions in neuroblastoma. Cisplatin-based chemotherapy is a major regimen to treat neuroblastoma, but its clinical efficacy is limited by chemoresistance. We investigated the impact of human metallothionein-3 (hMT3) up-regulation in neuroblastoma cells and the mechanisms underlying the cisplatin-resistance. We confirmed the cisplatin-metallothionein complex formation using mass spectrometry. Overexpression of hMT3 decreased the sensitivity of neuroblastoma UKF-NB-4 cells to cisplatin. We report, for the first time, cisplatin-sensitive human UKF-NB-4 cells remodelled into cisplatin-resistant cells via high and constitutive hMT3 expression in an in vivo model using chick chorioallantoic membrane assay. Comparative proteomic analysis demonstrated that several biological pathways related to apoptosis, transport, proteasome, and cellular stress were involved in cisplatin-resistance in hMT3 overexpressing UKF-NB-4 cells. Overall, our data confirmed that up-regulation of hMT3 positively correlated with increased cisplatin-chemoresistance in neuroblastoma, and a high level of hMT3 could be one of the causes of frequent tumour relapses.

ARID2 deficiency promotes tumor progression and is associated with higher sensitivity to chemotherapy in lung cancer.

The survival rate in lung cancer remains stubbornly low and there is an urgent need for the identification of new therapeutic targets. In the last decade, several members of the SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complexes have been described altered in different tumor types. Nevertheless, the precise mechanisms of their impact on cancer progression, as well as the application of this knowledge to cancer patient management are largely unknown. In this study, we performed targeted sequencing of a cohort of lung cancer patients on genes involved in chromatin structure. In addition, we studied at the protein level the expression of these genes in cancer samples and performed functional experiments to identify the molecular mechanisms linking alterations of chromatin remodeling genes and tumor development. Remarkably, we found that 20% of lung cancer patients show ARID2 protein loss, partially explained by the presence of ARID2 mutations. In addition, we showed that ARID2 deficiency provokes profound chromatin structural changes altering cell transcriptional programs, which bolsters the proliferative and metastatic potential of the cells both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, we demonstrated that ARID2 deficiency impairs DNA repair, enhancing the sensitivity of the cells to DNA-damaging agents. Our findings support that ARID2 is a bona fide tumor suppressor gene in lung cancer that may be exploited therapeutically.

RAC1 induces nuclear alterations through the LINC complex to enhance melanoma invasiveness.

RHO GTPases are key regulators of the cytoskeletal architecture, which impact a broad range of biological processes in malignant cells including motility, invasion, and metastasis, thereby affecting tumor progression. One of the constraints during cell migration is the diameter of the pores through which cells pass. In this respect, the size and shape of the nucleus pose a major limitation. Therefore, enhanced nuclear plasticity can promote cell migration. Nuclear morphology is determined in part through the cytoskeleton, which connects to the nucleoskeleton through the Linker of Nucleoskeleton and Cytoskeleton (LINC) complex. Here, we unravel the role of RAC1 as an orchestrator of nuclear morphology in melanoma cells. We demonstrate that activated RAC1 promotes nuclear alterations through its effector PAK1 and the tubulin cytoskeleton, thereby enhancing migration and intravasation of melanoma cells. Disruption of the LINC complex prevented RAC1-induced nuclear alterations and the invasive properties of melanoma cells. Thus, RAC1 induces nuclear morphology alterations through microtubules and the LINC complex to promote an invasive phenotype in melanoma cells.

RAS Subcellular Localization Inversely Regulates Thyroid Tumor Growth and Dissemination.

RAS mutations are the second most common genetic alteration in thyroid tumors. However, the extent to which they are associated with the most aggressive phenotypes is still controversial. Regarding their malignancy, the majority of RAS mutant tumors are classified as undetermined, which complicates their clinical management and can lead to undesired under- or overtreatment. Using the chick embryo spontaneous metastasis model, we herein demonstrate that the aggressiveness of HRAS-transformed thyroid cells, as determined by the ability to extravasate and metastasize at distant organs, is orchestrated by HRAS subcellular localization. Remarkably, aggressiveness inversely correlates with tumor size. In this respect, we also show that RAS site-specific capacity to regulate tumor growth and dissemination is dependent on VEGF-B secretion. Furthermore, we have identified the acyl protein thioesterase APT-1 as a determinant of thyroid tumor growth versus dissemination. We show that alterations in APT-1 expression levels can dramatically affect the behavior of thyroid tumors, based on its role as a regulator of HRAS sublocalization at distinct plasma membrane microdomains. In agreement, APT-1 emerges in thyroid cancer clinical samples as a prognostic factor. As such, APT-1 levels could serve as a biomarker that could help in the stratification of HRAS mutant thyroid tumors based on their aggressiveness.

RAS at the Golgi antagonizes malignant transformation through PTPRκ-mediated inhibition of ERK activation.

RAS GTPases are frequently mutated in human cancer. H- and NRAS isoforms are distributed over both plasma-membrane and endomembranes, including the Golgi complex, but how this organizational context contributes to cellular transformation is unknown. Here we show that RAS at the Golgi is selectively activated by apoptogenic stimuli and antagonizes cell survival by suppressing ERK activity through the induction of PTPRκ, which targets CRAF for dephosphorylation. Consistently, in contrast to what occurs at the plasma-membrane, RAS at the Golgi cannot induce melanoma in zebrafish. Inactivation of PTPRκ, which occurs frequently in human melanoma, often coincident with TP53 inactivation, accelerates RAS-ERK pathway-driven melanomagenesis in zebrafish. Likewise, tp53 disruption in zebrafish facilitates oncogenesis driven by RAS from the Golgi complex. Thus, RAS oncogenic potential is strictly dependent on its sublocalization, with Golgi complex-located RAS antagonizing tumor development.

Analysis of Ras/ERK Compartmentalization by Subcellular Fractionation.

A vast number of stimuli use the Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK signaling cascade to transmit signals from their cognate receptors, in order to regulate multiple cellular functions, including key processes such as proliferation, cell cycle progression, differentiation, and survival. The duration, intensity and specificity of the responses are, in part, controlled by the compartmentalization/subcellular localization of the signaling intermediaries. Ras proteins are found in different plasma membrane microdomains and endomembranes. At these localizations, Ras is subject to site-specific regulatory mechanisms, distinctively engaging effector pathways and switching-on diverse genetic programs to generate a multitude of biological responses. The Ras effector pathway leading to ERKs activation is also subject to space-related regulatory processes. About half of ERK1/2 substrates are found in the nucleus and function mainly as transcription factors. The other half resides in the cytosol and other cellular organelles. Such subcellular distribution enhances the complexity of the Ras/ERK cascade and constitutes an essential mechanism to endow variability to its signals, which enables their participation in the regulation of a broad variety of functions. Thus, analyzing the subcellular compartmentalization of the members of the Ras/ERK cascade constitutes an important factor to be taken into account when studying specific biological responses evoked by Ras/ERK signals. Herein, we describe methods for such purpose.

ERK Signals: Scaffolding Scaffolds?

ERK1/2 MAP Kinases become activated in response to multiple intra- and extra-cellular stimuli through a signaling module composed of sequential tiers of cytoplasmic kinases. Scaffold proteins regulate ERK signals by connecting the different components of the module into a multi-enzymatic complex by which signal amplitude and duration are fine-tuned, and also provide signal fidelity by isolating this complex from external interferences. In addition, scaffold proteins play a central role as spatial regulators of ERKs signals. In this respect, depending on the subcellular localization from which the activating signals emanate, defined scaffolds specify which substrates are amenable to be phosphorylated. Recent evidence has unveiled direct interactions among different scaffold protein species. These scaffold-scaffold macro-complexes could constitute an additional level of regulation for ERK signals and may serve as nodes for the integration of incoming signals and the subsequent diversification of the outgoing signals with respect to substrate engagement.

Defined spatiotemporal features of RAS-ERK signals dictate cell fate in MCF-7 mammary epithelial cells.

Signals conveyed through the RAS-ERK pathway are essential for the determination of cell fate. It is well established that signal variability is achieved in the different microenvironments in which signals unfold. It is also known that signal duration is critical for decisions concerning cell commitment. However, it is unclear how RAS-ERK signals integrate time and space in order to elicit a given biological response. To investigate this, we used MCF-7 cells, in which EGF-induced transient ERK activation triggers proliferation, whereas sustained ERK activation in response to heregulin leads to adipocytic differentiation. We found that both proliferative and differentiating signals emanate exclusively from plasma membrane-disordered microdomains. Of interest, the EGF signal can be transformed into a differentiating stimulus by HRAS overexpression, which prolongs ERK activation, but only if HRAS localizes at disordered membrane. On the other hand, HRAS signals emanating from the Golgi complex induce apoptosis and can prevent heregulin-induced differentiation. Our results indicate that within the same cellular context, RAS can exert different, even antagonistic, effects, depending on its sublocalization. Thus cell destiny is defined by the ability of a stimulus to activate RAS at the appropriate sublocalization for an adequate period while avoiding switching on opposing RAS signals.

Small Molecule Inhibition of ERK Dimerization Prevents Tumorigenesis by RAS-ERK Pathway Oncogenes.

Nearly 50% of human malignancies exhibit unregulated RAS-ERK signaling; inhibiting it is a valid strategy for antineoplastic intervention. Upon activation, ERK dimerize, which is essential for ERK extranuclear, but not for nuclear, signaling. Here, we describe a small molecule inhibitor for ERK dimerization that, without affecting ERK phosphorylation, forestalls tumorigenesis driven by RAS-ERK pathway oncogenes. This compound is unaffected by resistance mechanisms that hamper classical RAS-ERK pathway inhibitors. Thus, ERK dimerization inhibitors provide the proof of principle for two understudied concepts in cancer therapy: (1) the blockade of sub-localization-specific sub-signals, rather than total signals, as a means of impeding oncogenic RAS-ERK signaling and (2) targeting regulatory protein-protein interactions, rather than catalytic activities, as an approach for producing effective antitumor agents.

Mxi2 sustains ERK1/2 phosphorylation in the nucleus by preventing ERK1/2 binding to phosphatases.

ERK1/2 (extracellular-signal-regulated kinase 1/2) MAPKs (mitogen-activated protein kinases) are tightly regulated by the cellular microenvironment in which they operate. Mxi2 is a p38α splice isoform capable of binding to ERK1/2 and ensuring their translocation to the nucleus. Therein Mxi2 sustains ERK1/2 phosphorylation levels and, as a consequence, ERK1/2 nuclear signals are enhanced. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this process are still unclear. In the present study, we show that Mxi2 prevents nuclear but not cytoplasmic phosphatases from binding to and dephosphorylating ERK1/2, disclosing an unprecedented mechanism for the spatial regulation of ERK1/2 activation. We also demonstrate that the kinetics of ERK1/2 extranuclear signals can be significantly altered by artificially tethering Mxi2 to the cytoplasm. In this case, Mxi2 abolishes ERK1/2 inactivation by cytoplasmic phosphatases and potentiates ERK1/2 functions at this compartment. These results highlight Mxi2 as a key spatial regulator of ERK1/2 functions, playing a pivotal role in the balance between ERK1/2 nuclear and cytoplasmic signals.

ERK1/2 MAP kinases promote cell cycle entry by rapid, kinase-independent disruption of retinoblastoma-lamin A complexes.

As orchestrators of essential cellular processes like proliferation, ERK1/2 mitogen-activated protein kinase signals impact on cell cycle regulation. A-type lamins are major constituents of the nuclear matrix that also control the cell cycle machinery by largely unknown mechanisms. In this paper, we disclose a functional liaison between ERK1/2 and lamin A whereby cell cycle progression is regulated. We demonstrate that lamin A serves as a mutually exclusive dock for ERK1/2 and the retinoblastoma (Rb) protein. Our results reveal that, immediately after their postactivation entrance in the nucleus, ERK1/2 dislodge Rb from its interaction with lamin A, thereby facilitating its rapid phosphorylation and consequently promoting E2F activation and cell cycle entry. Interestingly, these effects are independent of ERK1/2 kinase activity. We also show that cellular transformation and tumor cell proliferation are dependent on the balance between lamin A and nuclear ERK1/2 levels, which determines Rb accessibility for phosphorylation/inactivation.

ERK dimers and scaffold proteins: unexpected partners for a forgotten (cytoplasmic) task.

Signals transmitted by ERK1/2 MAP Kinases regulate the functions of multiple substrates present in the nucleus and in the cytoplasm, in similar proportions. In spite of this fact, the prevailing trend of the field has been to focus on the nuclear component, being considered the main executor of ERK biological functions. Following this fashion, scaffold proteins have been often described as modulators of ERK phosphorylation in their route, either as monomers or as dimers, to their ultimate destination at the nucleus. Contrarily, recent findings demonstrate that scaffolds and ERK dimers are essential for the activation of cytoplasmic but not nuclear substrates. Dimerization is critical for connecting the scaffolded ERK complex to cognate cytoplasmic substrates, while nuclear substrates are activated by ERK monomers. Furthermore, blocking ERK cytoplasmic signals by preventing ERK dimerization, is sufficient for attenuating cellular proliferation, transformation and tumor development. These new results highlight the importance of ERK cytoplasmic signals, disclose an unprecedented functional relationship between scaffold proteins and ERK dimers and identify dimerization as a key determinant of the spatial specificity of ERK signals.

Ras subcellular localization defines extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 substrate specificity through distinct utilization of scaffold proteins.

Subcellular localization influences the nature of Ras/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signals by unknown mechanisms. Herein, we demonstrate that the microenvironment from which Ras signals emanate determines which substrates will be preferentially phosphorylated by the activated ERK1/2. We show that the phosphorylation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFr) and cytosolic phospholipase A(2) (cPLA(2)) is most prominent when ERK1/2 are activated from lipid rafts, whereas RSK1 is mainly activated by Ras signals from the disordered membrane. We present evidence indicating that the underlying mechanism of this substrate selectivity is governed by the participation of different scaffold proteins that distinctively couple ERK1/2, activated at defined microlocalizations, to specific substrates. As such, we show that for cPLA(2) activation, ERK1/2 activated at lipid rafts interact with KSR1, whereas ERK1/2 activated at the endoplasmic reticulum utilize Sef-1. To phosphorylate the EGFr, ERK1/2 activated at lipid rafts require the participation of IQGAP1. Furthermore, we demonstrate that scaffold usage markedly influences the biological outcome of Ras site-specific signals. These results disclose an unprecedented spatial regulation of ERK1/2 substrate specificity, dictated by the microlocalization from which Ras signals originate and by the selection of specific scaffold proteins.

Fast regulation of AP-1 activity through interaction of lamin A/C, ERK1/2, and c-Fos at the nuclear envelope.

Sequestration of c-Fos at the nuclear envelope (NE) through interaction with A-type lamins suppresses AP-1-dependent transcription. We show here that c-Fos accumulation within the extraction-resistant nuclear fraction (ERNF) and its interaction with lamin A are reduced and enhanced by gain-of and loss-of ERK1/2 activity, respectively. Moreover, hindering ERK1/2-dependent phosphorylation of c-Fos attenuates its release from the ERNF induced by serum and promotes its interaction with lamin A. Accordingly, serum stimulation rapidly releases preexisting c-Fos from the NE via ERK1/2-dependent phosphorylation, leading to a fast activation of AP-1 before de novo c-Fos synthesis. Moreover, lamin A-null cells exhibit increased AP-1 activity and reduced levels of c-Fos phosphorylation. We also find that active ERK1/2 interacts with lamin A and colocalizes with c-Fos and A-type lamins at the NE. Thus, NE-bound ERK1/2 functions as a molecular switch for rapid mitogen-dependent AP-1 activation through phosphorylation-induced release of preexisting c-Fos from its inhibitory interaction with lamin A/C.