CSPG4-dependent cytotoxicity for C. difficile TcdB is influenced by extracellular calcium and chondroitin sulfate.

TcdB is an intracellular bacterial toxin indispensable to Clostridioides difficile infections. The ability to use chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 4 (CSPG4) as a primary cell surface receptor is evolutionarily conserved by the two major variants of TcdB. As CSPG4 does not typically undergo receptor-mediated endocytosis, we sought to identify environmental factors that stabilize interactions between TcdB and CSPG4 to promote cell binding and entry into the cytosol. Using a series of TcdB receptor-binding mutants and cell lines with various receptor expression profiles, we discovered that extracellular Ca2+ promotes receptor-specific interactions with TcdB. Specifically, TcdB exhibits preferential binding to CSPG4 in the presence of Ca2+, with the absence of Ca2+ resulting in CSPG4-independent cell surface interactions. Furthermore, Ca2+ did not enhance TcdB binding to chondroitin sulfate (CS), the sole glycosaminoglycan of CSPG4. Instead, CS was found to impact the rate of cell entry by TcdB. Collectively, results from this study indicate that Ca2+ enhances cell binding by TcdB and CS interactions contribute to subsequent steps in cell entry. IMPORTANCE: Clostridioides difficile is a leading cause of antibiotic-associated gastrointestinal illness, and many disease pathologies are caused by the toxin TcdB. TcdB engages multiple cell surface receptors, with receptor tropisms differing among the variants of the toxin. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 4 (CSPG4) is a critical receptor for multiple forms of TcdB, and insights into TcdB-CSPG4 interactions are applicable to many disease-causing strains of C. difficile. CSPG4 is modified by chondroitin sulfate (CS) and contains laminin-G repeats stabilized by Ca2+, yet the relative contributions of CS and Ca2+ to TcdB cytotoxicity have not been determined. This study demonstrates distinct roles in TcdB cell binding and cell entry for Ca2+ and CS, respectively. These effects are specific to CSPG4 and contribute to the activities of a prominent isoform of TcdB that utilizes this receptor. These findings advance an understanding of factors contributing to TcdB's mechanism of action and contribution to C. difficile disease.

Targeted Analysis of the Size Distribution of Heavy Chain-Modified Hyaluronan with Solid-State Nanopores.

The glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan (HA) plays important roles in diverse physiological functions where the distribution of its molecular weight (MW) can influence its behavior and is known to change in response to disease conditions. During inflammation, HA undergoes a covalent modification in which heavy chain subunits of the inter-alpha-inhibitor family of proteins are transferred to its structure, forming heavy chain-HA (HC•HA) complexes. While limited assessments of HC•HA have been performed previously, determining the size distribution of its HA component remains a challenge. Here, we describe a selective method for extracting HC•HA from mixtures that yields material amenable to MW analysis with a solid-state nanopore sensor. After demonstrating the approach in vitro, we validate extraction of HC•HA from osteoarthritic human synovial fluid as a model complex biological matrix. Finally, we apply our technique to pathophysiology by measuring the size distributions of HC•HA and total HA in an equine model of synovitis.

Hyaluronan synthases; mechanisms, myths, & mysteries of three types of unique bifunctional glycosyltransferases.

Hyaluronan (HA), the essential [-3-GlcNAc-1-ß-4-GlcA-1-ß-]n matrix polysaccharide in vertebrates and molecular camouflage coating in select pathogens, is polymerized by "HA synthase" (HAS) enzymes. The first HAS identified three decades ago opened the window for new insights and biotechnological tools. This review discusses current understanding of HA biosynthesis, its biotechnological utility, and addresses some misconceptions in the literature. HASs are fascinating enzymes that polymerize two different UDP-activated sugars via different glycosidic linkages. Therefore, these catalysts were the first examples to break the "one enzyme/one sugar transferred" dogma. Three distinct types of these bifunctional glycosyltransferases (GTs) with disparate architectures and reaction modes are known. Based on biochemical and structural work, we present an updated classification system. Class I membrane-integrated HASs employ a processive chain elongation mechanism and secrete HA across the plasma membrane. This complex operation is accomplished by functionally integrating a cytosolic catalytic domain with a channel-forming transmembrane region. Class I enzymes, containing a single GT family-2 (GT-2) module that adds both monosaccharide units to the nascent chain, are further subdivided into two groups that construct the polymer with opposite molecular directionalities: Class I-R and I-NR elongate the HA polysaccharide at either the reducing or the non-reducing end, respectively. In contrast, Class II HASs are membrane-associated peripheral synthases with a non-processive, non-reducing end elongation mechanism using two independent GT-2 modules (one for each type of monosaccharide) and require a separate secretion system for HA export. We discuss recent mechanistic insights into HA biosynthesis that promise biotechnological benefits and exciting engineering approaches.

Quantifying Intracellular Nanoparticle Distributions with Three-Dimensional Super-Resolution Microscopy.

Super-resolution microscopy can transform our understanding of nanoparticle-cell interactions. Here, we established a super-resolution imaging technology to visualize nanoparticle distributions inside mammalian cells. The cells were exposed to metallic nanoparticles and then embedded within different swellable hydrogels to enable quantitative three-dimensional (3D) imaging approaching electron-microscopy-like resolution using a standard light microscope. By exploiting the nanoparticles' light scattering properties, we demonstrated quantitative label-free imaging of intracellular nanoparticles with ultrastructural context. We confirmed the compatibility of two expansion microscopy protocols, protein retention and pan-expansion microscopy, with nanoparticle uptake studies. We validated relative differences between nanoparticle cellular accumulation for various surface modifications using mass spectrometry and determined the intracellular nanoparticle spatial distribution in 3D for entire single cells. This super-resolution imaging platform technology may be broadly used to understand the nanoparticle intracellular fate in fundamental and applied studies to potentially inform the engineering of safer and more effective nanomedicines.

Chemoenzymatic synthesis of sulfur-linked sugar polymers as heparanase inhibitors.

Complex carbohydrates (glycans) are major players in all organisms due to their structural, energy, and communication roles. This last essential role involves interacting and/or signaling through a plethora of glycan-binding proteins. The design and synthesis of glycans as potential drug candidates that selectively alter or perturb metabolic processes is challenging. Here we describe the first reported sulfur-linked polysaccharides with potentially altered conformational state(s) that are recalcitrant to digestion by heparanase, an enzyme important in human health and disease. An artificial sugar donor with a sulfhydryl functionality is synthesized and enzymatically incorporated into polysaccharide chains utilizing heparosan synthase. Used alone, this donor adds a single thio-sugar onto the termini of nascent chains. Surprisingly, in chain co-polymerization reactions with a second donor, this thiol-terminated heparosan also serves as an acceptor to form an unnatural thio-glycosidic bond ('S-link') between sugar residues in place of a natural 'O-linked' bond. S-linked heparan sulfate analogs are not cleaved by human heparanase. Furthermore, the analogs act as competitive inhibitors with > ~200-fold higher potency than expected; as a rationale, molecular dynamic simulations suggest that the S-link polymer conformations mimic aspects of the transition state. Our analogs form the basis for future cancer therapeutics and modulators of protein/sugar interactions.

Controlling Nanoparticle Uptake in Innate Immune Cells with Heparosan Polysaccharides.

We used heparosan (HEP) polysaccharides for controlling nanoparticle delivery to innate immune cells. Our results show that HEP-coated nanoparticles were endocytosed in a time-dependent manner by innate immune cells via both clathrin-mediated and macropinocytosis pathways. Upon endocytosis, we observed HEP-coated nanoparticles in intracellular vesicles and the cytoplasm, demonstrating the potential for nanoparticle escape from intracellular vesicles. Competition with other glycosaminoglycan types inhibited the endocytosis of HEP-coated nanoparticles only partially. We further found that nanoparticle uptake into innate immune cells can be controlled by more than 3 orders of magnitude via systematically varying the HEP surface density. Our results suggest a substantial potential for HEP-coated nanoparticles to target innate immune cells for efficient intracellular delivery, including into the cytoplasm. This HEP nanoparticle surface engineering technology may be broadly used to develop efficient nanoscale devices for drug and gene delivery as well as possibly for gene editing and immuno-engineering applications.

Selective isolation of hyaluronan by solid phase adsorption to silica.

A solid phase adsorption method for selective isolation of hyaluronan (HA) from biological samples is presented. Following enzymatic degradation of protein, HA can be separated from sulfated glycosaminoglycans, other unsulfated glycosaminoglycans, nucleic acids, and proteolytic fragments by adsorption to amorphous silica at specific salt concentrations. The adsorbed HA can be released from silica using neutral and basic aqueous solutions. HA ranging in size from ∼9 kDa to MDa polymers has been purified by this method from human serum and conditioned medium of cultured cells.

A quartz crystal microbalance method to quantify the size of hyaluronan and other glycosaminoglycans on surfaces.

Hyaluronan (HA) is a major component of peri- and extra-cellular matrices and plays important roles in many biological processes such as cell adhesion, proliferation and migration. The abundance, size distribution and presentation of HA dictate its biological effects and are also useful indicators of pathologies and disease progression. Methods to assess the molecular mass of free-floating HA and other glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are well established. In many biological and technological settings, however, GAGs are displayed on surfaces, and methods to obtain the size of surface-attached GAGs are lacking. Here, we present a method to size HA that is end-attached to surfaces. The method is based on the quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) and exploits that the softness and thickness of films of grafted HA increase with HA size. These two quantities are sensitively reflected by the ratio of the dissipation shift (ΔD) and the negative frequency shift (- Δf) measured by QCM-D upon the formation of HA films. Using a series of size-defined HA preparations, ranging in size from ~ 2 kDa tetrasaccharides to ~ 1 MDa polysaccharides, we establish a monotonic yet non-linear standard curve of the ΔD/ - Δf ratio as a function of HA size, which reflects the distinct conformations adopted by grafted HA chains depending on their size and surface coverage. We demonstrate that the standard curve can be used to determine the mean size of HA, as well as other GAGs, such as chondroitin sulfate and heparan sulfate, of preparations of previously unknown size in the range from 1 to 500 kDa, with a resolution of better than 10%. For polydisperse samples, our analysis shows that the process of surface-grafting preferentially selects smaller GAG chains, and thus reduces the average size of GAGs that are immobilised on surfaces comparative to the original solution sample. Our results establish a quantitative method to size HA and other GAGs grafted on surfaces, and also highlight the importance of sizing GAGs directly on surfaces. The method should be useful for the development and quality control of GAG-based surface coatings in a wide range of research areas, from molecular interaction analysis to biomaterials coatings.

Optimizing the sensitivity and resolution of hyaluronan analysis with solid-state nanopores.

Hyaluronan (HA) is an essential carbohydrate in vertebrates that is a potentially robust bioindicator due to its critical roles in diverse physiological functions in health and disease. The intricate size-dependent function that exists for HA and its low abundance in most biological fluids have highlighted the need for sensitive technologies to provide accurate and quantitative assessments of polysaccharide molecular weight and concentration. We have demonstrated that solid state (SS-) nanopore technology can be exploited for this purpose, given its molecular sensitivity and analytical capacity, but there remains a need to further understand the impacts of experimental variables on the SS-nanopore signal for optimal interpretation of results. Here, we use model quasi-monodisperse HA polymers to determine the dependence of HA signal characteristics on a range of SS-nanopore measurement conditions, including applied voltage, pore diameter, and ionic buffer asymmetry. Our results identify important factors for improving the signal-to-noise ratio, resolution, and sensitivity of HA analysis with SS-nanopores.

Nanoparticle Surface Engineering with Heparosan Polysaccharide Reduces Serum Protein Adsorption and Enhances Cellular Uptake.

Nanoparticle modification with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) is a widely used surface engineering strategy in nanomedicine. However, since the artificial PEG polymer may adversely impact nanomedicine safety and efficacy, alternative surface modifications are needed. Here, we explored the "self" polysaccharide heparosan (HEP) to prepare colloidally stable HEP-coated nanoparticles, including gold and silver nanoparticles and liposomes. We found that the HEP-coating reduced the nanoparticle protein corona formation as efficiently as PEG coatings upon serum incubation. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry revealed the protein corona profiles. Heparosan-coated nanoparticles exhibited up to 230-fold higher uptake in certain innate immune cells, but not in other tested cell types, than PEGylated nanoparticles. No noticeable cytotoxicity was observed. Serum proteins did not mediate the high cell uptake of HEP-coated nanoparticles. Our work suggests that HEP polymers may be an effective surface modification technology for nanomedicines to safely and efficiently target certain innate immune cells.

Methods for isolating and analyzing physiological hyaluronan: a review.

The carbohydrate hyaluronan (or hyaluronic acid, HA) is found in all human tissues and biofluids where it has wide-ranging functions in health and disease that are dictated by both its abundance and size. Consequently, hyaluronan evaluation in physiological samples has significant translational potential. Although the analytical tools and techniques for probing other biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids have become standard approaches in biochemistry, those available for investigating hyaluronan are less well established. In this review, we survey methods related to the assessment of native hyaluronan in biological specimens, including protocols for separating it from biological matrices and technologies for determining its concentration and molecular weight.

Hyaluronic acid synthesis, degradation, and crosslinking in equine osteoarthritis: TNF-α-TSG-6-mediated HC-HA formation.

BACKGROUND: TNF-α-stimulated gene 6 (TSG-6) protein, a TNF-α-responsive hyaladherin, possesses enzymatic activity that can catalyze covalent crosslinks of the polysaccharide hyaluronic acid (HA) to another protein to form heavy chain-hyaluronic acid (HC-HA) complexes in pathological conditions such as osteoarthritis (OA). Here, we examined HA synthase and inflammatory gene expression; synovial fluid HA, TNF-α, and viscosity; and TSG-6-mediated HC-HA complex formation in an equine OA model. The objectives of this study were to (1) evaluate the TNF-α-TSG-6-HC-HA signaling pathway across multiple joint tissues, including synovial membrane, cartilage, and synovial fluid, and (2) determine the impact of OA on synovial fluid composition and biophysical properties. METHODS: HA and inflammatory cytokine concentrations (TNF-α, IL-1ß, CCL2, 3, 5, and 11) were analyzed in synovial fluid from 63 OA and 25 control joints, and HA synthase (HAS1-3), TSG-6, and hyaluronan-degrading enzyme (HYAL2, HEXA) gene expression was measured in synovial membrane and cartilage. HA molecular weight (MW) distributions were determined using agarose gel electrophoresis and solid-state nanopore measurements, and HC-HA complex formation was detected via immunoblotting and immunofluorescence. SEC-MALS was used to evaluate TSG-6-mediated HA crosslinking, and synovial fluid and HA solution viscosities were analyzed using multiple particle-tracking microrheology and microfluidic measurements, respectively. RESULTS: TNF-α concentrations were greater in OA synovial fluid, and TSG6 expression was upregulated in OA synovial membrane and cartilage. TSG-6-mediated HC-HA complex formation was greater in OA synovial fluid and tissues than controls, and HC-HA was localized to both synovial membrane and superficial zone chondrocytes in OA joints. SEC-MALS demonstrated macromolecular aggregation of low MW HA in the presence of TSG-6 and inter-α-inhibitor with concurrent increases in viscosity. CONCLUSIONS: Synovial fluid TNF-α concentrations, synovial membrane and cartilage TSG6 gene expression, and HC-HA complex formation were increased in equine OA. Despite the ability of TSG-6 to induce macromolecular aggregation of low MW HA with resultant increases in the viscosity of low MW HA solutions in vitro, HA concentration was the primary determinant of synovial fluid viscosity rather than HA MW or HC-HA crosslinking. The TNF-α-TSG-6-HC-HA pathway may represent a potential therapeutic target in OA.

A primer for initiation of commercialization of glycobiological discoveries.

In this age of translational science, blossoming biotechnology and increasingly elusive federal funding, a working knowledge of commercialization beyond typical academic training is necessary. Here, some issues and initial strategies to help principal investigators, postdoctoral fellows and students considering the route from discovery to invention to commercialization in the glycobiology field. Common myths are addressed, and tips and resources are provided to help start down this path.

Strong Reduction of the Chain Rigidity of Hyaluronan by Selective Binding of Ca2+ Ions.

The biological functions of natural polyelectrolytes are strongly influenced by the presence of ions, which bind to the polymer chains and thereby modify their properties. Although the biological impact of such modifications is well recognized, a detailed molecular picture of the binding process and of the mechanisms that drive the subsequent structural changes in the polymer is lacking. Here, we study the molecular mechanism of the condensation of calcium, a divalent cation, on hyaluronan, a ubiquitous polymer in human tissues. By combining two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy experiments with molecular dynamics simulations, we find that calcium specifically binds to hyaluronan at millimolar concentrations. Because of its large size and charge, the calcium cation can bind simultaneously to the negatively charged carboxylate group and the amide group of adjacent saccharide units. Molecular dynamics simulations and single-chain force spectroscopy measurements provide evidence that the binding of the calcium ions weakens the intramolecular hydrogen-bond network of hyaluronan, increasing the flexibility of the polymer chain. We also observe that the binding of calcium to hyaluronan saturates at a maximum binding fraction of ∼10-15 mol %. This saturation indicates that the binding of Ca2+ strongly reduces the probability of subsequent binding of Ca2+ at neighboring binding sites, possibly as a result of enhanced conformational fluctuations and/or electrostatic repulsion effects. Our findings provide a detailed molecular picture of ion condensation and reveal the severe effect of a few, selective and localized electrostatic interactions on the rigidity of a polyelectrolyte chain.

Nanoparticle Toxicology.

Nanoparticles from natural and anthropogenic sources are abundant in the environment, thus human exposure to nanoparticles is inevitable. Due to this constant exposure, it is critically important to understand the potential acute and chronic adverse effects that nanoparticles may cause to humans. In this review, we explore and highlight the current state of nanotoxicology research with a focus on mechanistic understanding of nanoparticle toxicity at organ, tissue, cell, and biomolecular levels. We discuss nanotoxicity mechanisms, including generation of reactive oxygen species, nanoparticle disintegration, modulation of cell signaling pathways, protein corona formation, and poly(ethylene glycol)-mediated immunogenicity. We conclude with a perspective on potential approaches to advance current understanding of nanoparticle toxicity. Such improved understanding may lead to mitigation strategies that could enable safe application of nanoparticles in humans. Advances in nanotoxicity research will ultimately inform efforts to establish standardized regulatory frameworks with the goal of fully exploiting the potential of nanotechnology while minimizing harm to humans.

Label-free analysis of physiological hyaluronan size distribution with a solid-state nanopore sensor.

Hyaluronan (or hyaluronic acid, HA) is a ubiquitous molecule that plays critical roles in numerous physiological functions in vivo, including tissue hydration, inflammation, and joint lubrication. Both the abundance and size distribution of HA in biological fluids are recognized as robust indicators of various pathologies and disease progressions. However, such analyses remain challenging because conventional methods are not sufficiently sensitive, have limited dynamic range, and/or are only semi-quantitative. Here we demonstrate label-free detection and molecular weight discrimination of HA with a solid-state nanopore sensor. We first employ synthetic HA polymers to validate the measurement approach and then use the platform to determine the size distribution of as little as 10 ng of HA extracted directly from synovial fluid in an equine model of osteoarthritis. Our results establish a quantitative method for assessment of a significant molecular biomarker that bridges a gap in the current state of the art.

Synthesis and characterization of heparosan-granulocyte-colony stimulating factor conjugates: a natural sugar-based drug delivery system to treat neutropenia.

Many injectable drugs require delivery strategies for enhancing their pharmacokinetics due to rapid loss via renal filtration if possess low molecular weight (<60-70 kDa) and/or clearance by the body's components (e.g., proteases, antibodies, high-efficiency receptors) in their native form. FDA-approved polyethylene glycol (PEG) is a vehicle for improving therapeutics, but artificial polymers have potential biocompatibility and immunogenicity liabilities. Here, we utilized a natural vertebrate carbohydrate, heparosan (HEP), the biosynthetic precursor of heparan sulfate and heparin, to enhance performance of a biologic drug. The HEP polysaccharide was stable with a long half-life (~8 days for 99-kDa chain) in the nonhuman primate bloodstream, but was efficiently degraded to very short oligosaccharides when internalized by cells, and then excreted into urine and feces. Several HEP-modified human granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) conjugates were synthesized with defined quasi-monodisperse HEP polysaccharide chains. Single dosing of 55- or 99-kDa HEP-G-CSF in rats increased blood neutrophil levels comparable to PEG-G-CSF conjugates. Repeated dosing of HEP-G-CSF or HEP alone for 2 weeks did not cause HEP-specific toxic effects in rats. HEP did not possess the anticoagulant behavior of its daughter, heparin, based on testing in rats or clinical diagnostic assays with human plasma. Neither anti-HEP IgG nor IgM antibodies were detected in a long-term (9 doses over 7 months) immunogenicity study of the HEP-drug conjugate with rats. These proof-of-concept experiments with HEP-G-CSF indicate that it is a valid drug candidate for neutropenia and suggest the potential of this HEP-based platform as a safe alternative delivery vehicle for other therapeutics.

Heparosan-coated liposomes for drug delivery.

Liposomal encapsulation is a useful drug delivery strategy for small molecules, especially chemotherapeutic agents such as doxorubicin. Doxil® is a doxorubicin-containing liposome ("dox-liposome") that passively targets drug to tumors while reducing side effects caused by free drug permeating and poisoning healthy tissues. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is the hydrophilic coating of Doxil® that protects the formulation from triggering the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS). Evading the MPS prolongs dox-liposome circulation time thus increasing drug deposition at the tumor site. However, multiple doses of Doxil® sometimes activate an anti-PEG immune response that enhances liposome clearance from circulation and causes hypersensitivity, further limiting its effectiveness against disease. These side effects constrain the utility of PEG-coated liposomes in certain populations, justifying the need for investigation into alternative coatings that could improve drug delivery for better patient quality of life and outcome. We hypothesized that heparosan (HEP; [-4-GlcA-ß1-4-GlcNAc-α1-]n) may serve as a PEG alternative for coating liposomes. HEP is a natural precursor to heparin biosynthesis in mammals. Also, bacteria expressing an HEP extracellular capsule during infection escape detection and are recognized as "self," not a foreign threat. By analogy, coating drug-carrying liposomes with HEP should camouflage the delivery vehicle from the MPS, extending circulation time and potentially avoiding immune-mediated clearance. In this study, we characterize the postmodification insertion of HEP-lipids into liposomes by dynamic light scattering and coarse-grain computer modeling, test HEP-lipid immunogenicity in rats, and compare the efficacy of drug delivered by HEP-coated liposomes to PEG-coated liposomes in a human breast cancer xenograft mouse model.

Synthesis of 4-Azido-N-acetylhexosamine Uridine Diphosphate Donors: Clickable Glycosaminoglycans.

Unnatural chemically modified nucleotide sugars UDP-4-N3-GlcNAc and UDP-4-N3-GalNAc were chemically synthesized for the first time. These unnatural UDP sugar products were then tested for incorporation into hyaluronan, heparosan, or chondroitin using polysaccharide synthases. UDP-4-N3-GlcNAc served as a chain termination substrate for hyaluronan or heparosan synthases; the resulting 4-N3-GlcNAc-terminated hyaluronan and heparosan were then successfully conjugated with Alexa Fluor 488 DIBO alkyne, demonstrating that this approach is generally applicable for labeling and detection of suitable glycosaminoglycans.

Expanding glycosaminoglycan chemical space: towards the creation of sulfated analogs, novel polymers and chimeric constructs.

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) have therapeutic potential in areas ranging from angiogenesis, inflammation, hemostasis and cancer. GAG bioactivity is conferred by intrinsic structural features, such as disaccharide composition, glycosidic linkages and sulfation pattern. Unfortunately, the in vitro enzymatic synthesis of defined GAGs is quite restricted by a limited understanding of current GAG synthases and modifying enzymes. Our work provides insights into GAG-active enzymes through the creation of sulfated oligosaccharides, a new polysaccharide and chimeric polymers. We show that a C6-sulfonated uridine diphospho (UDP)-glucose (Glc) derivative, sulfoquinovose, can be used as an uronic acid donor, but not as a hexosamine donor, to cap hyaluronan (HA) chains by the HA synthase from the microbe Pasteurella multocida. However, the two heparosan (HEP) synthases from the same species, PmHS1 and PmHS2, could not employ the UDP-sulfoquinovose under similar conditions. Serendipitously, we found that PmHS2 co-polymerized Glc with glucuronic acid (GlcA), creating a novel HEP-like polymer we named hepbiuronic acid [-4-GlcAß1-4-Glcα1-]n. In addition, we created chimeric block polymers composed of both HA and HEP segments; in these reactions GlcA-, but not N-acetylglucosamine-(GlcNAc), terminated GAG acceptors were recognized by their noncognate synthase for further extension, likely due to the common ß-linkage connecting GlcA to GlcNAc in both of these GAGs. Overall, these GAG constructs provide new tools for studying biology and offer potential for future sugar-based therapeutics.