Are the first 1,000 days of life a neglected vital period to prevent the impact on maternal and infant morbimortality of infectious diseases in Latin America? Proceedings of a workshop of experts from the Latin American Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, SLIPE.

While the first 1,000 days of life are a critical period in child's development, limited information on the main determinants affecting this period in the Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) region is available. Therefore, the Latin American Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society (SLIPE) held an ad hoc workshop in May 2022 with an expert panel designed to analyze the main factors impacting the development of childhood in the region during this period and the main causes of maternal infant morbimortality. The aim was to identify priorities, generate recommendations, and advise practical actions to improve this situation. Considerations were made about the challenges involved in bridging the gap that separates the region from more developed countries regarding an optimal early childhood and maternal care. Extensive discussion was conducted to reach consensus recommendations on general strategies intended to reduce maternal and infant mortality associated with infections and immune-preventable diseases during the first 1,000 days of life in LAC.

Increasing polio coverage with safer vaccines: a pressing need in Latin America

Given the actual risk of poliomyelitis outbreaks in the region due to poliovirus derived from the Sabin vaccine or the importation of wild poliovirus, the Latin American Society of Pediatric Infectious Diseases commissioned an ad hoc group of experts from the institution's Vaccines and Biologicals Committee, to draft an official position paper on the urgent need to increase immunization levels against the disease in the region and incorporate inactivated polio vaccine exclusive schedules in all national immunization programs. This publication discusses the main conclusions and recommendations generated as a result of such activity.

Ante el riesgo real de ocurrencia de brotes de parálisis fláccida aguda en la región debidos a poliovirus derivado de la vacuna Sabin o a la importación de poliovirus salvaje, la Sociedad Latinoamericana de Infectología Pediátrica comisionó a un grupo ad hoc de expertos integrantes del Comité de Vacunas y Biológicos de la institución, para redactar un documento oficial de posición sobre la necesidad imperiosa de incrementar los niveles de inmunización contra la enfermedad en la región e incorporar definitivamente en forma exclusiva la vacuna de polio inactivada en todos los esquemas nacionales de vacunación. La presente publicación discute las principales conclusiones y recomendaciones generadas como resultado de esta actividad.

Factors Associated With Hospitalization or Intensive Care Admission in Children With COVID-19 in Latin America.

Background: Limited data is available from low-middle and upper-middle income countries of the factors associated with hospitalization or admission to pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) for children with COVID-19. Objective: To describe the factors associated with hospitalization or PICU admission of children with COVID-19 in Latin America. Method: Multicenter, analytical, retrospective study of children reported from 10 different Latin American countries to the Latin-American Society of Pediatric Infectious Diseases (SLIPE-COVID) research network from June 1, 2020, and February 28, 2021. Outpatient or hospitalized children <18 years of age with COVID-19 confirmed by polymerase chain reaction or antigen detection from the nasopharynx were included. Children with multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) were excluded. Associations were assessed using univariate and multivariable logistic regression models. Results: A total of 1063 children with COVID-19 were included; 500 (47%) hospitalized, with 419 (84%) to the pediatric wards and 81 (16%) to the ICU. In multivariable analyses, age <1 year (Odds Ratio [OR] 1.78; 95% CI 1.08-2.94), native race (OR 5.40; 95% CI 2.13-13.69) and having a co-morbid condition (OR 5.3; 95% CI 3.10-9.15), were associated with hospitalization. Children with metabolic or endocrine disorders (OR 4.22; 95% CI 1.76-10.11), immune deficiency (1.91; 95% CI 1.05-3.49), preterm birth (OR 2.52; 95% CI 1.41-4.49), anemia at presentation (OR 2.34; 95% CI 1.28-4.27), radiological peribronchial wall thickening (OR 2.59; 95% CI 1.15-5.84) and hypoxia, altered mental status, seizures, or shock were more likely to require PICU admission. The presence of pharyngitis (OR 0.34; 95% CI 0.25-0.48); myalgia (OR 0.47; 95% CI 0.28-0.79) or diarrhea (OR 0.38; 95% CI 0.21-0.67) were inversely associated with hospital admission. Conclusions: In this data analysis reported to the SLIPE research network in Latin America, infants, social inequalities, comorbidities, anemia, bronchial wall thickening and specific clinical findings on presentation were associated with higher rates of hospitalization or PICU admission. This evidence provides data for prioritization prevention and treatment strategies for children suffering from COVID-19.

Varicella epidemiology in Latin America and the Caribbean.

INTRODUCTION: The Latin American Society of Pediatric Infectious Diseases (SLIPE), with the support of the Americas Health Foundation (AHF), has developed a position paper on varicella prevention in Latin America and Caribbean countries (LAC). This article summarizes the most relevant aspects of varicella in LAC, and emphasizes the need to include the varicella vaccine in the national immunization programs in the Region and evaluate its impact disease burden. AREAS COVERED: A systematic review was conducted of the medical evidence published and presented at various regional medical conferences on the disease burden in LAC, the advances made by prevention programs, the available vaccines in the Region, and their immunogenicity, efficacy, effectiveness, and safety. The different national varicella-prevention vaccination programs were reviewed, as was available information regarding the impact of these programs on the epidemiology of varicella in those countries implementing a varicella vaccine strategy. Following that initial publication, an update was conducted, including data from additional countries in the Region. EXPERT COMMENTARY: Varicella is a vaccine-preventable infectious disease, considered a 'benign disease' because of lower complication rates when compared with measles, pertussis. The incorporation of a two-dose varicella vaccine in national immunization schedules in all countries throughout LAC would be of great benefit to the health of the children.

The Global Meningococcal Initiative: global epidemiology, the impact of vaccines on meningococcal disease and the importance of herd protection.

INTRODUCTION: The 2015 Global Meningococcal Initiative (GMI) meeting discussed the global importance of meningococcal disease (MD) and its continually changing epidemiology. Areas covered: Although recent vaccination programs have been successful in reducing incidence in many countries (e.g. Neisseria meningitidis serogroup [Men]C in Brazil, MenA in the African meningitis belt), new clones have emerged, causing outbreaks (e.g. MenW in South America, MenC in Nigeria and Niger). The importance of herd protection was highlighted, emphasizing the need for high vaccination uptake among those with the highest carriage rates, as was the need for boosters to maintain individual and herd protection following decline of immune response after primary immunization. Expert commentary: The GMI Global Recommendations for Meningococcal Disease were updated to include a recommendation to enable access to whole-genome sequencing as for surveillance, guidance on strain typing to guide use of subcapsular vaccines, and recognition of the importance of advocacy and awareness campaigns.

Enfermedad meningocóccica: siempre presente. Cambios en los serogrupos en el Cono Sur / Meningococcal disease: always present. Serogroup changes in the Southern Cone

Meningococcal disease (MD) caused by Neisseria meningitidis is a condition with high mortality rates in childhood. Serogroup W135 N. meningitidis (MenW135) is usually associated with 1 to 8% of MD cases worldwide, and with a low carriage rate. During March 2000, an increase in the number of cases of MenW135 in Saudi Arabia was reported that coincided with the Hajj pilgrimage (Hajj-2000 strain). Mayer et al studied MenW135 strains from outbreaks related with this pilgrimage and found that all had been caused by the same hypervirulent clone (ST-11/complex ET-37). The circulation of this strain could also be documented in Latin America. In the last years, changes in serogroup prevalence have been observed in the region, the increase of MenW135 in the Southern Cone being the most significant. N. meningitidis infections of several serogroups including MenW135 may be prevented with chemoprophylaxis with antibiotics and quadrivalent vaccines. Better knowledge of the global epidemiology through the new molecular techniques, jointly with the availability of vaccines are the most relevant tools to control hyperendemic or epidemic periods of MD.

La enfermedad meningocóccica (EM) producida por Neisseria meningitidis es una causa de alta mortalidad en la niñez. N. meningitidis serogrupo W135 (MenW135) es habitualmente asociado en el mundo con el 1 al 8% de los casos de EM y con una baja tasa de portadores. En 2000 en Arabia Saudita se informó un aumento del MenW135 coincidente con la peregrinación a la Meca, Hajj (cepa Hajj-2000). Mayer y cols. estudiaron cepas MenW135 de brotes relacionados con la peregrinación, y hallaron que todos los casos fueron producidos por el mismo clon hipervirulento (ST-11/complejo ET-37), cepa cuya circulación también se pudo documentar en América Latina. En los últimos años en la región se han producido cambios en la prevalencia de serogrupos, siendo el más significativo el aumento de MenW135 en el Cono Sur. Para la prevención de las infecciones por N. meningitidis de los diversos serogrupos incluyendo MenW135, se dispone de la quimioprofilaxis a través del uso de antimicrobianos y de las vacunas cuadrivalentes. El mejor conocimiento de la epidemiología global a través de las nuevas técnicas de laboratorio moleculares, junto con la disponibilidad de las vacunas, son las herramientas más relevantes para controlar períodos hiperendémicos o epidémicos de EM.

[Meningococcal disease: always present. Serogroup changes in the Southern Cone]. / Enfermedad meningocóccica: siempre presente. Cambios en los serogrupos en el Cono Sur.

Meningococcal disease (MD) caused by Neisseria meningitidis is a condition with high mortality rates in childhood. Serogroup W135 N. meningitidis (MenW135) is usually associated with 1 to 8% of MD cases worldwide, and with a low carriage rate. During March 2000, an increase in the number of cases of MenW135 in Saudi Arabia was reported that coincided with the Hajj pilgrimage (Hajj-2000 strain). Mayer et al studied MenW135 strains from outbreaks related with this pilgrimage and found that all had been caused by the same hypervirulent clone (ST-11/complex ET-37). The circulation of this strain could also be documented in Latin America. In the last years, changes in serogroup prevalence have been observed in the region, the increase of MenW135 in the Southern Cone being the most significant. N. meningitidis infections of several serogroups including MenW135 may be prevented with chemoprophylaxis with antibiotics and quadrivalent vaccines. Better knowledge of the global epidemiology through the new molecular techniques, jointly with the availability of vaccines are the most relevant tools to control hyperendemic or epidemic periods of MD.

[Delayed vaccine schedule and missed opportunities for vaccination in children up to 24 months. A multicenter study]. / Esquemas atrasados de vacunación y oportunidades perdidas de vacunación en niños de hasta 24 meses: estudio multicéntrico.

INTRODUCTION: Delayed vaccine schedule (DVS) and missed opportunities of vaccination (MOV) are some of the main causes of low coverage in children ≤24 month in Argentina. OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence of DVS and the rate of MOV during the frst 24 months of life and risk factors for their occurrence. POPULATION AND METHODS: We conducted a survey among children ≤24 month's caregivers at five hospitals in different departments, between August-December/2008. RESULTS: Total enrolled: 1591 children; 54.2% male, median of age 8 months (0-24 months). Eighty percent concurred with vaccine-card, 75.9% consulted by pathology. Overall DVS rate: 39.7%. Most common DVS reason: the current mild disease: 38.5%. Overall MOV rate: 19.8%. Most common MOV reason: no detection of the need to vaccinate 47.8%. DTPHib and OPV vaccines had a higher risk of DVS and MOV. DVS independent predictors: age ≥6 months, administration for additionally recommended vaccines and prolonged waiting in the last vaccination. MOV independent predictors were: age ≥6 months, no compliance with prior care, and not asking for vaccines. CONCLUSION: We found a high proportion of MOV and mainly of DVS; they were associated mostly to false contraindications, lack of questioning on vaccines and difficulties in the quality of care provided to parents.

Esquemas atrasados de vacunacion y oportunidades perdidas de vacunacion en niños de hasta 24 meses: estudio multicentrico / Delayed vaccine schedule and missed opportunities for vaccination in children up to 24 months: a multicenter study

Introduccion. Los esquemas atrasados de vacunacion (EAV) y las oportunidades perdidas de vacunacion (OPV) en niños constituyen algunas de las principales causas de baja cobertura. Objetivos: Determinar tasas de EAV y OPV en niños menor o igual 24 meses y los factores asociados a su ocurrencia. Poblacion y metodos. Encuesta a los cuidadores de niños menor o igual 24 meses a la salida de los consultorios de clinica pediatrica y de guardia en 5 hospitales de diferentes provincias, entre agosto diciembre de 2008. Resultados. Total enrolado: 1591 niños; 54,2 por ciento varones, mediana de edad 8 meses (0-24); 80,1 por ciento tenia carnet; 75,9 por ciento consultaba por patologia. Tasa global EAV: 39,7 por ciento. Motivo mas frecuente de atraso: enfermedad actual leve: 38,5 por ciento. Tasa global OPV: 19,8 por ciento. Motivo mas frecuente de OPV: no deteccion de la necesidad de vacunar: 47,8 por ciento. Cuadruple y Sabin presentaron mayor riesgo de EAV y OPV. Predictores independientes de EAV: edad mayor o igual 6 meses, administracion de vacunas fuera de calendario y espera prolongadaen la ultima vacunacion; y de OPV: edad mayor o igual 6 meses, no conformidad con la atencion previa, falta de interrogatorio por vacunas. Conclusiones. Se hallo una proporcion importante de OPV y principalmente de EAV; estas se vincularon, en su mayor parte, a falsas contraindicaciones,falta de interrogatorio por vacunas y a dificultades en la calidad de atencion brindada a los padres.

Introduction. Delayed vaccine schedule (DVS) and missed opportunities of vaccination (MOV) are some of the main causes of low coverage in children /6 months, no compliance with prior care, and not asking for vaccines.Conclusion. We found a high proportion of MOV and mainly of DVS; they were associated mostly to false contraindications, lack of questioning onvaccines and difficulties in the quality of care provided to parents.

Decline in HAV-associated fulminant hepatic failure and liver transplant in children in Argentina after the introduction of a universal hepatitis A vaccination program.

INTRODUCTION: Hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection is a vaccine-preventable disease. The most severe complication in children is fulminant hepatic failure (FHF), estimated to occur in 0.4% of cases; patients with FHF often require a liver transplant (LT). Following another outbreak of HAV infection in Argentina during 2003-2004, a one-dose HAV universal immunization (UI) program was started in 2005, resulting in a reduction in the incidence of HAV infection. We have investigated the impact of HAV UI on the trends in the occurrence of FHF and LT in children. METHODS: All pediatric cases of FHF admitted to four pediatric centers in Buenos Aires during March 1993-July 2005 were retrospectively reviewed, and data of cases during August 2005-December 2008 were collected. Information about demography, HAV infections and vaccination status, diagnostic data for FHF using the Pediatric Acute Liver Failure criteria, clinical laboratory results, encephalopathy, the severity of liver disease using the Pediatric End Stage Liver Disease score, assessment of patients on the LT waiting list using King's College Criteria for LT, treatment given for FHF (pre- and post-transplant), and clinical outcome were collected using a case report form. The frequency and outcomes of HAV-associated FHF and LT cases before and after UI were analyzed. RESULTS: During the pre-immunization period, March 1993-July 2005, 54.6% (N = 165) of FHF cases were caused by HAV; HAV-associated FHF cases peaked during 2003-2004. During the post-immunization period, August 2005-December 2008, only 27.7% (N = 18) of FHF cases were caused by HAV infection; only one of these patients had received the HAV vaccine (one dose only). The number of HAV-associated FHF cases decreased from 2005, and no cases were reported from November 2006-December 2008. Multivariate analyses showed that the association of FHF with HAV infection rather than other etiologies decreased with increasing age (P = 0.03), UI against HAV (P = 0.002), and anti-actin antibodies (P = 0.002), and increased with increasing weight (P = 0.0004). CONCLUSIONS: The number of children with HAV-associated FHF in Argentina has strongly decreased since the initiation of the UI program. Further monitoring is required to confirm the long-term health and economic benefits of UI against HAV infection.

Long-term immunity after two doses of inactivated hepatitis A vaccine, in Argentinean children.

We examined long-term anti-hepatitis A virus antibody persistence in Argentinean children 10 years after the initial study in which they received 2 doses of inactivated hepatitis A vaccine (Avaxim 80U). Of the 111 children, 48 from the initial trial were enrolled. Of 48, 47 (97.9%) participants had serum anti-hepatitis A virus antibody titers > or =20 mIU/mL, with the geometric mean concentration of 390.91 (+/-370.14) mIU/mL; (95% confidence interval, 282.2-499.5 mIU/mL), range, 36 to 1860.

Childhood pneumococcal disease burden in Argentina.

OBJECTIVES: To understand the disease burden of pneumococcal disease (PD), a major cause of childhood morbidity and mortality in Argentina, and to draw a baseline against which the need for and effectiveness of vaccination with pneumococcal conjugate vaccines might be measured. METHODS: A Markov model was constructed to estimate incidence and mortality rates of PD-meningitis (MEN), bacteremia/septicemia (BACT), pneumonia (PNEU), acute otitis media (AOM)-among a hypothetical, birth cohort of 750,000 Argentine infants born in 2006-2015. A systematic review of the literature was performed to select and incorporate input parameters. Life years and costs in 2006 US$ were expressed as both undiscounted and discounted. RESULTS: The number of PD episodes estimated to occur over a 10-year period in the hypothetical birth cohort were: MEN, 225; BACT, 2841; PNEU, 2628; and AOM, 2,066,719. Chronic sequelae of MEN could be expected to cause neurological damage in 43 children and severe hearing issues in 28. Results indicate that there would be 78 PD-related deaths in the cohort (29% due to MEN; 54%, BACT; and 17%, PNEU). The undiscounted life-expectancy for individuals in the birth cohort was estimated to be 72.4 years (29.0 years discounted). Mean, undiscounted, lifetime costs attributed to PD for each child of the cohort totaled US$167 (US$151 discounted), imposing a total, cohort cost-burden of more than US$126 million (US$113 million discounted). CONCLUSIONS: The study shows that PD imposes a significant health and economic burden on the Argentine population. This information is essential for assessing the potential health and economic impact of introducing pneumococcal conjugate vaccine into the national immunization schedule.

Childhood pneumococcal disease burden in Argentina / Carga por enfermedad neumocócica en niños de Argentina

OBJECTIVES: To understand the disease burden of pneumococcal disease (PD), a major cause of childhood morbidity and mortality in Argentina, and to draw a baseline against which the need for and effectiveness of vaccination with pneumococcal conjugate vaccines might be measured. METHODS: A Markov model was constructed to estimate incidence and mortality rates of PD-meningitis (MEN), bacteremia/septicemia (BACT), pneumonia (PNEU), acute otitis media (AOM)-among a hypothetical, birth cohort of 750 000 Argentine infants born in 2006-2015. A systematic review of the literature was performed to select and incorporate input parameters. Life years and costs in 2006 US$ were expressed as both undiscounted and discounted. RESULTS: The number of PD episodes estimated to occur over a 10-year period in the hypothetical birth cohort were: MEN, 225; BACT, 2 841; PNEU, 2 628; and AOM, 2 066 719. Chronic sequelae of MEN could be expected to cause neurological damage in 43 children and severe hearing issues in 28. Results indicate that there would be 78 PD-related deaths in the cohort (29 percent due to MEN; 54 percent, BACT; and 17 percent, PNEU). The undiscounted life-expectancy for individuals in the birth cohort was estimated to be 72.4 years (29.0 years discounted). Mean, undiscounted, lifetime costs attributed to PD for each child of the cohort totaled US$ 167 (US$ 151 discounted), imposing a total, cohort cost-burden of more than US$ 126 million (US$ 113 million discounted). CONCLUSIONS: The study shows that PD imposes a significant health and economic burden on the Argentine population. This information is essential for assessing the potential health and economic impact of introducing pneumococcal conjugate vaccine into the national immunization schedule.

OBJETIVOS: Analizar la carga que provoca la enfermedad neumocócica (EN), una importante causa de morbimortalidad infantil en Argentina y establecer una línea de base a partir de la cual se pueda medir la necesidad y la eficacia del uso de vacunas antineumocócicas conjugadas. MÉTODOS: Se elaboró un modelo de Markov para estimar las tasas de incidencia y mortalidad por meningitis (MEN), bacteremia/septicemia (BACT), neumonía (PNEU) y otitis media aguda (AOM) asociadas con la EN, en una cohorte hipotética de 750 000 niños nacidos en Argentina entre 2006 y 2015. Se realizó una revisión sistemática para seleccionar los parámetros de entrada y utilizarlos en el modelo. Los resultados se expresaron en años de vida y costos en dólares estadounidenses (US$), con descuento y sin descuento. RESULTADOS: Los episodios de EN que se estima ocurrirían en un período de 10 años en la cohorte hipotética serían 225 MEN, 2 841 BACT, 2 628 PNEU y 2 066 719 AOM. Las secuelas crónicas de las MEN podrían causar daños neurológicos en 43 niños y trastornos auditivos graves en 28. Estos resultados indican que en esta cohorte habría 78 muertes asociadas con la EN (29 por ciento por MEN, 54 por ciento por BACT y 17 por ciento por PNEU). La esperanza de vida sin descuento estimada para los niños de la cohorte fue de 72,4 años (con descuento de 29,9 años). Los costos promedio sin descuento atribuidos a la EN por cada niño de la cohorte durante toda la vida fueron de US$ 167 (con descuento de US$ 151), lo que provocaría un costo total para la cohorte de más de US$ 126 millones (con descuento de US$ 113 millones). CONCLUSIONES: Estos resultados demuestran que la EN impone una carga sanitaria y económica significativa a la población argentina. Esta información es esencial para evaluar el posible impacto sanitario y económico de la introducción de la vacuna conjugada antineumocócica en el programa nacional de vacunación.

The cost-effectiveness of universal vaccination of children against hepatitis A in Argentina: results of a dynamic health-economic analysis.

BACKGROUND: Socioeconomic improvements can reduce levels of endemic hepatitis A, but conversely increase the burden of disease. Routine childhood vaccination can rapidly control hepatitis A infection rates through the induction of herd immunity, although such programs can be costly. METHODS: We evaluated the healthcare benefits and cost-effectiveness of a routine childhood vaccination program against hepatitis A in Argentina, using a dynamic model that incorporated the changing epidemiology of infection and the impact of vaccine-induced herd immunity. Demographic, disease, and economic data from Argentina were used where available. RESULTS: At 95% coverage, the program would reduce the number of hepatitis A infections by 352,405 annually, avoiding 121,587 symptomatic cases and 428 deaths. Substantial healthcare benefits were also observed with vaccination coverage as low as 70%, which would prevent 295,826 infections. Economically, the program would save 23,989,963 US$ annually at 95% coverage, equivalent to 3,429 US$ per life-year gained. The program remained cost-saving in response to variation in factors, including disease-related costs, discount rate, herd immunity level, and rate of decrease of force of infection. The break-even cost per vaccine dose for the society was 25 US$ in the base-case, more than three times the current public cost of 7 US$ per dose. CONCLUSIONS: Routine childhood vaccination against hepatitis A showed both health benefits and robust economic benefits in this analysis, supporting the recent decision of the Argentine government to implement such a program.

Varicella seroprevalence and molecular epidemiology of varicella-zoster virus in Argentina, 2002.

There is limited data on immunity against varicella-zoster virus (VZV) in adults in different parts of Argentina, and it is not known which VZV strains are circulating in Argentina. The objectives of this study were as follows: (i) to evaluate seroprevalence of varicella among adults, assessing the accuracy of clinical history and determining the sociodemographic factors associated with seropositivity; and (ii) to determine the VZV strains circulating in Argentina. A cross-sectional serological survey enrolling 2,807 women aged 15 to 49 years attending public health-care settings in four cities in Argentina (i.e., Buenos Aires, Salta, Mendoza, and Rosario) and one rural area was conducted from August to November 2002. Specimens for identification of VZV strains were obtained from vesicular lesions from 13 pediatric patients with varicella from different areas of the country. PCR amplification was used for genotyping. The overall seroprevalence of varicella antibodies was 98.5% (95% confidence interval, 98.0 to 98.9), ranging from 97.2% in central Buenos Aires to 99.3% in southern Buenos Aires and Salta. Varicella seroprevalence increased with age. Crowding and length of residence in the same place were associated with seropositivity. The positive predictive value of varicella history for immunity to varicella was 99.4%; however, the negative predictive value was 2.5%. The European genotype was identified in all viral specimens. In Argentina, seroprevalence in women more than 15 years old was high regardless of the area of residence. Negative or uncertain varicella history was not a good predictor of immunity. VZV genotype was stable in all areas of the country.

[Clinical study and analysis of risk factors for mortality in 86 cases of infectious endocarditis in children and adolescents in Argentina: 1988-2000]. / Análisis clínico y de los factores de riesgo de mortalidad de 86 casos de endocarditis infecciosa en niños y adolescentes en Argentina (1988-2000).

INTRODUCTION: IE is a rare infection in children. Scarce reports with large number of patients are published. METHODS: Between January 1988 to December 2000 we analyzed all cases of IE cases admitted to our hospital. RESULTS: 86 cases of IE (4.9/10,000 admissions) in 86 children were diagnosed. The median age was 7.6 years. In 77% of patient previous cardiac disease was detected, interventricular defects and Tetralogy of Fallot were the more frequent. Three percent of children had rheumatic heart disease. Thirty-six percent of children had previous heart surgery. Fifty-seven percent have been received previous antibiotics. Eighty-seven percent had positive blood cultures, being the S. aureus and S. viridans the predominantly. Forty-eight percent of children had complications. The metabolic disorders and the nosocomial infections were the most frequent. Twenty-four percent required surgery, 24% of them in the first week of the diagnosis. The mortality in operated children was 19%. In the multivariate analysis we could observe that children with more than 7 years and S. aureus isolation in blood cultures had more incidence of complications and posterior surgery (p < 0.05). Children with S. aureus IE had longer duration of fever, more incidence of complications than patients with S. viridans IE (p < 0.05). Ten percent of children were treated as outpatients. The global mortality was 12,8%. Previous surgery (OR = 6.89; IC 95% 1.54-30.7) and previous antibiotic treatment (OR = 9.98; IC 95% 1.12-88.8) were the factors related with higher mortality in the multivariate analysis. S. aureus was the predominat pathogen and caused more morbidity and mortality than S. viridans IE. CONCLUSION: Children with IE with previous surgery and previous antibiotic treatment died with more frequency.

Infección por influenza. Riesgos, complicaciones y prevención / Influenza infection. Risk, adverse consequences, and prevention

Si bien en la mayoría de los casos la infección por el virus de la influenza es autolimitada, ciertos grupos de personas tienen mayor riesgo de complicaciones e incluso de morir por la infección. En estos grupos se encuentran las personas en los extremos de la vida y las que presentan condiciones médicas asociadas, como enfermedades pulmonares o cardíacas crónicas, o diabetes. Las muertes por influenza pueden resultar de las complicaciones, como neumonía o exacerbación de enfermedad pulmonar crónica, en pacientes con condiciones mórbidas cardiopulmonares previas. La mayoría de ellas ocurre en adultos y en más del 90% como consecuencia de neumonía. Las tasas estimadas para infección por influenza asociada a estas condiciones son de 0,4-0,6 muertes/100.000 personas en el grupo de edad de 0-49 años, 7,5/100.000 entre personas de 50-64 años y de 98,3/100.000 en los mayores de 65 años. Los pacientes con enfermedad cardiovascular previa tienen indudablemente un mayor riesgo de complicaciones ocasionadas por la gripe. En general, las infecciones respiratorias altas se han asociado con un riesgo incrementado de enfermedad cardíaca isquémica y accidentes cardiovasculares, que se incrementan durante las epidemias a razón de 2,5 veces más para las muertes de causa cardiovascular. Incluso las muertes por insuficiencia cardíaca precedida por gripe aumentan 1,8 veces en comparación con las ocasionadas en ausencia de la infección. Por otro lado, debido a que las vacunas antiinfluenza inactivadas han demostrado su eficacia para reducir la incidencia de neumonía, las tasas de hospitalización y las muertes relacionadas con influenza en poblaciones mayores de 65 años, se recomienda su utilización incluso en los grupos que están en estrecho contacto con los individuos expuestos y susceptibles a la gripe. También está indicada en individuos institucionalizados y en los que presentan enfermedades de base crónicas. Más aún, recientemente, los organismos internacionales de vigilancia han sugerido que se reduzca la edad recomendada con anterioridad para la vacunación antigripal a personas de 50-64 años debido a que un tercio de éstas tienen 1 o más condiciones que predisponen a tener complicaciones severas devenidas de la gripe española, así como a las personas en estrecho contacto con los individuos expuestos y susceptibles de complicaciones (AU)

Even though in most cases infections with influenza virus are self-limiting, certain groups are under higher risk of suffering complications or even dying because of the infection. Within these groups, we include newborns and elderly people, and those with a medical condition such as lung or heart disease, diabetes, etc. Deaths caused by influenza can be the result of complications such as pneumonia or exacerbation of chronic lung disease in patients with a previous cardiopulmonary condition. Most of these deaths correspond to adults, and over 90% of them are the consequence of pneumonia. The estimated rates registered for infection with influenza associated with these conditions are: 0.4-0.6 deaths/100000 people in groups in the range 0-49 years of age; 7.5 amongst people in the range 50-64 years of age; and 98.3 in people over 65. Patients with previous cardiovascular disease are under higher risk of complications caused by flu. Additionally, upper respiratory infections have been globally associated to an increased risk of ischemic heart disease and stroke. During epidemics this risk increases 2.5 times the number of deaths caused by cardiovascular accidents and 1.8 times those linked to heart condition, either ischemic cardiopathy or congestive heart failure. Due to risk of complications and due to the fact that the existing inactivated flu vaccine proved to be effective in reducing the incidence of pneumonia, the rates of hospitalization and deaths caused by influenza in people over 65 years of age, those in nursery homes and those with a medical condition, vaccination is recommended to these groups. Furthermore, vaccination is from now on, recommended to people in close contact with them and to people within the range 50-64 years of age, since one third have one or more conditions that make them susceptible to severe complications (AU)