In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of the Effects of Drug 2c and Derivatives on Ovarian Cancer Cells.

BACKGROUND: The identification of novel therapeutic strategies for ovarian cancer (OC), the most lethal gynecological neoplasm, is of utmost urgency. Here, we have tested the effectiveness of the compound 2c (4-hydroxy-2,6-bis(4-nitrobenzylidene)cyclohexanone 2). 2c interferes with the cysteine-dependent deubiquitinating enzyme (DUB) UCHL5, thus affecting the ubiquitin-proteasome-dependent degradation of proteins. METHODS: 2c phenotypic/molecular effects were studied in two OC 2D/3D culture models and in a mouse xenograft model. Furthermore, we propose an in silico model of 2c interaction with DUB-UCHL5. Finally, we have tested the effect of 2c conjugated to several linkers to generate 2c/derivatives usable for improved drug delivery. RESULTS: 2c effectively impairs the OC cell line and primary tumor cell viability in both 2D and 3D conditions. The effectiveness is confirmed in a xenograft mouse model of OC. We show that 2c impairs proteasome activity and triggers apoptosis, most likely by interacting with DUB-UCHL5. We also propose a mechanism for the interaction with DUB-UCHL5 via an in silico evaluation of the enzyme-inhibitor complex. 2c also reduces cell growth by down-regulating the level of the transcription factor E2F1. Eventually, 2c activity is often retained after the conjugation with linkers. CONCLUSION: Our data strongly support the potential therapeutic value of 2c/derivatives in OC.

Identification and evaluation of antiviral activity of novel compounds targeting SARS-CoV-2 virus by enzymatic and antiviral assays, and computational analysis.

The viral genome of the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus, the aetiologic agent of COVID-19, encodes structural, non-structural, and accessory proteins. Most of these components undergo rapid genetic variations, though to a lesser extent the essential viral proteases. Consequently, the protease and/or deubiquitinase activities of the cysteine proteases Mpro and PLpro became attractive targets for the design of antiviral agents. Here, we develop and evaluate new bis(benzylidene)cyclohexanones (BBC) and identify potential antiviral compounds. Three compounds were found to be effective in reducing the SARS-CoV-2 load, with EC50 values in the low micromolar concentration range. However, these compounds also exhibited inhibitory activity IC50 against PLpro at approximately 10-fold higher micromolar concentrations. Although originally developed as PLpro inhibitors, the comparison between IC50 and EC50 of BBC indicates that the mechanism of their in vitro antiviral activity is probably not directly related to inhibition of viral cysteine proteases. In conclusion, our study has identified new potential noncytotoxic antiviral compounds suitable for in vivo testing and further improvement.

Nanomechanical Characterization of Ovarian Cancer Cell Lines as a Marker of Response to 2c Treatment.

Epithelial ovarian cancers (EOCs) are a heterogeneous group of tumors with different molecular and clinical features. In past decades, few improvements have been achieved in terms of EOC management and treatment efficacy, such that the 5-year survival rate of patients remained almost unchanged. A better characterization of EOCs' heterogeneity is needed to identify cancer vulnerabilities, stratify patients and adopt proper therapies. The mechanical features of malignant cells are emerging as new biomarkers of cancer invasiveness and drug resistance that can further improve our knowledge of EOC biology and allow the identification of new molecular targets. In this study, we determined the inter and intra-mechanical heterogeneity of eight ovarian cancer cell lines and their association with tumor invasiveness and resistance to an anti-tumoral drug with cytoskeleton depolymerization activity (2c).

Enhancing Proteotoxic Stress in Leiomyosarcoma Cells Triggers Mitochondrial Dysfunctions, Cell Death, and Antitumor Activity in vivo.

Leiomyosarcomas are rare and aggressive tumors characterized by a complex karyotype. Surgical resection with or without radiotherapy and chemotherapy is the standard curative treatment. Unfortunately, a high percentage of leiomyosarcomas recurs and metastasizes. In these cases, doxorubicin and ifosfamide represent the standard treatment but with low response rates. Here, we evaluated the induction of proteotoxic stress as a possible strategy to kill leiomyosarcoma cells in a therapeutic perspective. We show that aggressive leiomyosarcomas coexist with high levels of proteotoxic stress. As a consequence, we hypothesized that leiomyosarcoma cells are vulnerable to further increases of proteotoxic stress. The small compound 2c is a strong inducer of proteotoxic stress. In leiomyosarcoma cells, it triggers cell death coupled to a profound reorganization of the mitochondrial network. By using stimulated emission depletion microscopy, we have unveiled the existence of DIABLO/SMAC clusters that are modulated by 2c. Finally, we have engineered a new version of 2c linked to polyethylene glycol though a short peptide, named 2cPP. This new prodrug is specifically activated by proteases present in the tumor microenvironment. 2cPP shows a strong antitumor activity in vivo against leiomyosarcomas and no toxicity against normal cells.

One Pot Synthesis of Micromolar BACE-1 Inhibitors Based on the Dihydropyrimidinone Scaffold and Their Thia and Imino Analogues.

A library of dihydropyrimidinones was synthesized via a "one-pot" three component Biginelli reaction using different aldehydes in combination with ß-dicarbonyl compounds and urea. Selected 2-thiooxo and 2-imino analogs were also obtained with the Biginelli reaction from thiourea and guanidine hydrochloride, respectively. The products were screened in vitro for their ß-secretase inhibitory activity. The majority of the compounds resulted to be active, with IC50 in the range 100 nM-50 µM.

X-Ray Crystal Structures and Organogelator Properties of (R)-9-Hydroxystearic Acid.

(R)-9-hydroxystearic acid, (R)-9-HSA, is a chiral nonracemic hydroxyacid of natural origin possessing interesting properties as an antiproliferative agent against different cancer types. Considering its potential application for medical and pharmaceutical purposes, the structures and rheological properties of (R)-9-HSA were investigated. Oscillatory rheology measurements reveal that (R)-9-HSA gels only paraffin oil, with less efficiency and thermal stability than its positional isomer (R)-12-HSA. Conversely, (R)-9-HSA affords crystals from methanol, acetonitrile, and carbon tetrachloride. The single crystal structures obtained both at 293 K and 100 K show non-centrosymmetric twisted carboxylic acid dimers linked at the midchain OHs into long, unidirectional chains of hydrogen bonds, owing to head-tail ordering of the molecules. Synchrotron X-ray powder diffraction experiments, performed on the solids obtained from different solvents, show the occurrence of polymorphism in paraffin oil and through thermal treatment of the solid from methanol.

Synthesis, characterization, and optimization for in vivo delivery of a nonselective isopeptidase inhibitor as new antineoplastic agent.

Bis-arylidenecycloalkanones structurally related to the nonselective isopeptidase inhibitor G5 were synthesized and tested for cytotoxic activity against glioblastoma cells. Cytotoxicities correlate well with Hammett σ constants for substituted arylidene groups, confirming the proposed inhibition mechanism. A new inhibitor (2c) based on the 4-hydroxycyclohexanone scaffold, which favors apoptosis over necrosis, was selected for further development. 2c inhibited representative deubiquitinases with micromolar IC50, and its proapoptotic activity was studied on several cancer cell lines. Inhibitor 2c was conjugated to PEG via dicarbamate and diester linkers. While the dicarbamate was inactive, the diester (2cPE) behaves like a prodrug and is converted into the active species 2c by secreted esterase activities. Finally, 2cPE was also tested in vivo on A549 lung carcinoma xenografts generated in mice. Intravenous treatment with 2cPE led to a significant reduction in primary tumor growth, without appreciable toxicity to mice.

Enzymatic resolution of α-methyleneparaconic acids and evaluation of their biological activity.

Both enantiomers of three biologically relevant paraconic acids-MB-3, methylenolactocin, and C75-were obtained with enantioselectivities up to 99% by kinetic enzymatic resolutions. Good enantiomeric excesses were obtained for MB-3 and methylenolactocin, using α-chymotrypsin and aminoacylase as enantiocomplementary enzymes, while C75 was resolved with aminoacylase. They all were evaluated for their antiproliferative, antibacterial, and antifungal activities, showing weak effects and practically no difference between enantiomers in each case. At high concentrations (16-64 µg/mL), (-)- C75 acted as an antimicrobial agent against Gram-positive bacteria.

PEG-Ursolic Acid Conjugate: Synthesis and In Vitro Release Studies.

A highly water-soluble macromolecular compound of ursolic acid with monomethoxypoly(ethylene glycol) (mPEG) was prepared. The physicochemical properties and stabilities under different conditions were investigated. By PEG conjugation, greatly increased water solubility was obtained, and the results showed that this conjugate was a potential prodrug for the oral delivery of ursolic acid.

The PDT activity of free and pegylated pheophorbide a against an amelanotic melanoma transplanted in C57/BL6 mice.

Pheophorbide a (Pba) is a chlorophyll catabolite that has been proposed as photosensitizer in photodynamic therapy. In a previous study we conjugated Pba to monomethoxy-polyethylene glycol (mPEG-Pba), to increase its solubility and pharmacokinetics. Here, we compare the photodynamic therapy efficacy of free Pba and mPEG-Pba to cure a subcutaneous amelanotic melanoma transplanted in C57/BL6 mice. The photosensitizers, i.p. injected (30 mg/kg), showed no toxicity when the animals were kept in the dark. But, after photoactivation with a 660 nm laser (fluence of 193 J/cm(2)), both photosensitizers, in particular mPEG-Pba, showed a strong efficacy to cure the tumor, both in terms of tumor growth delay and increase of Kaplan-Meier median survival time. Together, our in vivo data demonstrate that mPEG-conjugated Pba is a promising photosensitizer for the photodynamic therapy of cancer.

Pharmacokinetic analysis of multi PEG-theophylline conjugates.

In the attempt of prolonging the effect of drugs, a new branched, high-molecular weight multimeric poly(ethylene glycol) (MultiPEG), synthesized with a simple assembling procedure that devised the introduction of functional groups with divergent and selective reactivity, was employed as drug carrier. In particular, the attention was focused on the study of theophylline (THEO) and THEO-MultiPEG conjugates pharmacokinetic after oral administration in rabbit. Pharmacokinetic behavior was studied according to an ad hoc developed mathematical model accounting for THEO-MultiPEG in vivo absorption and decomposition into drug (THEO) and carrier (MultiPEG). The branched high-molecular weight MultiPEG proved to be a reliable drug delivery system able to prolong theophylline staying in the blood after oral administration of a THEO-MultiPEG solution. The analysis of experimental data by means of the developed mathematical model revealed that the prolongation of THEO effect was essentially due to the low THEO-MultiPEG permeability in comparison to that of pure THEO.

Pegylated TRAIL retains anti-leukemic cytotoxicity and exhibits improved signal transduction activity with respect to TRAIL.

To improve the pharmacokinetic profile of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL) an N-terminal specific pegylation was performed to generate pegylated TRAIL (PEG-TRAIL). In in vitro experiments, we found that although PEG-TRAIL was slightly less efficient than recombinant TRAIL in promoting leukemic cell apoptosis, it showed an improved ability to promote migration of bone-marrow mesenchymal stem cells and to elicit the ERK1/2 intracellular signal transduction pathway. Overall, these data suggest that TRAIL pegylation retains, or even enhances, the biological activities of TRAIL relevant for its therapeutic applications.

Conjugated PDT drug: photosensitizing activity and tissue distribution of PEGylated pheophorbide a.

The design of new photosensitizers with enhanced phototoxicity and pharmacokinetic properties remains a central challenge for cancer photodynamic therapy (PDT). In this study, Pheophorbide a (Pba) has been pegylated to methoxypolyethylene glycol (mPE G-Pba) to produce a soluble photosensitizer that exhibits a higher tissue distribution than free Pba. In vitro studies have shown that mPE G-Pba promotes a fairly strong photosensitizing effect in cancer cells, as previously observed for the unpegylated molecule. mPE G-Pba targets the mitochondria where, following photoactivation, ROS are produced which cause a cellular injury by lipid peroxidation. The effect of pegylation on the photosensitizer biodistribution has been examined in different selected organs of female mice, at different time points after intraperitoneal administration of the drug (50 µmol/Kg body weight). Other than free Pba, which showed a low tissue accumulation, mPE G-Pba has been detected in significant amounts (8 to 16 µg/ml) in liver, spleen, duodenum and kidney and, 3-5 hours after intraperitoneal injection, in moderate amounts (3 to 8 µg/ml) in brain and lung. In vivo optical imaging performed on living female C57/BL6 mice bearing a subcutaneous melanoma mass, showed that injected mPEG-Pba distributes all over the body, with an higher uptake in the tumor respect to free Pba. Our results indicate that although pegylation somewhat decreases the phototoxicity, it significantly increases the drug solubility and tissue distribution and tumor uptake of mPE G-Pba, making the conjugate an interesting photosensitizer for PDT.

Recent advances on patents in poly(ethylene glycol)-based drug delivery.

Taking advantage of the peculiar features of poly(ethylene glycol), a wide range of applications in the field of drug delivery has been devised. In these last years, a series of patents have been applied on the use of this polymer in delivering of biopolymers, as peptides, proteins and nucleic acid derivatives, as well as of low molecular weight drugs. Moreover, several related strategies have been outlined for the modification of biocompatible materials employed in the field of drug delivery. In this review we focused our attention on the patents appeared in the last years; the description is not exhaustive but the reported citations have been selected as examples of the aforementioned applications.

PNA conjugated to high-molecular weight poly(ethylene glycol): synthesis and properties.

The conjugation of a bioactive, fluorescent PNA sequence to high-molecular weight poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) is described and the properties of the PEG-PNA conjugate are evaluated.

A simple method for the preparation of PEG-6-mercaptopurine for oral administration.

A new and efficient method for the synthesis of PEG-6-mercaptopurine is described. The key feature of the proposed approach is the protection of the thiol group against metabolic inactivation. Preliminary in vivo and in vitro evaluations of the macromolecular prodrug have been carried out.

New MultiPEG-conjugated theophylline derivatives: synthesis and pharmacological evaluations.

The successful conjugation of active theophylline molecules to two new multifunctional high-molecular weight poly(ethylene glycol) derivatives (MultiPEG) and their pharmacokinetic evaluations are reported. The drug loading was increased up to six times in comparison with commercial PEG of the same molecular weight. A clear increase of the time of persistence within the body and a concomitant improvement of the overall pharmacokinetic properties of those prodrugs were also observed. These studies sustain the use of these new PEG-based polymeric supports as a valuable alternative for an effective drug delivery system.

Synthesis of oligonucleotide-peptide PEG-conjugated: the EGG (oligonucleotide)-chicken (peptide) dilemma?

The synthesis of a peptide-PEG-oligonucleotide chimera is compared when starting from the peptide or from the oligonucleotide sequence.

Postsynthetic conjugation of biopolymers with high molecular mass poly(ethylene glycol): optimization of a solution process tested on synthetic oligonucleotides.

The reaction of oligonucleotides with high molecular weight monomethoxy poly(ethylene glycol)s (MPEGs) has been tested to set up a convenient procedure for the postsynthetic conjugation in solution of biopolymers. A first oligonucleotide was previously modified in 5', using a liquid-phase procedure, with a linker carrying a terminal primary amino group to enhance its nucleophilic reactivity. Two procedures commonly utilized for the activation of the terminal OH groups of the MPEG were evaluated, that is, the reaction with pNO(2)-phenyl chloroformate and with N,N'-disuccinimidyl carbonate. Both water as well as organic solution conditions were employed and compared. In a second test, a 3'-amino modified, commercial 20-mer was also conjugated in a microscale condition to verify the effect of size and concentration of MPEG on the postsynthetic conjugation of these biopolymers under troublesome synthetic conditions.