A humanized mouse model for sequestration of Plasmodium falciparum sexual stages and in vivo evaluation of gametocytidal drugs.

The development of new drugs to disrupt malaria transmission requires the establishment of an in vivo model to address the biology of Plasmodium falciparum sexual stages (gametocytes). Herein we show that chemically immune-modulated NSG mice grafted with human erythrocytes support complete sexual development of P. falciparum parasites and generate high gametocytemia. Immunohistochemistry and RT-qPCR analyses indicate an enrichment of immature gametocytes in the bone marrow and the spleen, suggesting a sequestration mechanism reminiscent to that observed in humans. Upon primaquine treatment, elimination of gametocytes from peripheral blood and from sequestration sites was observed, providing a proof of concept that these mice can be used for testing drugs. Therefore, this model allows the investigation of P. falciparum sexual commitment, gametocyte interactions with the bone marrow and spleen and provides the missing link between current in vitro assays and Phase I trials in humans for testing new malaria gametocytidal drugs.

Plasmodium falciparum STEVOR phosphorylation regulates host erythrocyte deformability enabling malaria parasite transmission.

Deformability of Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte-infected erythrocytes (GIEs) allows them to persist for several days in blood circulation and to ensure transmission to mosquitoes. Here, we investigate the mechanism by which the parasite proteins STEVOR (SubTElomeric Variable Open Reading frame) exert changes on GIE deformability. Using the microsphiltration method, immunoprecipitation, and mass spectrometry, we produce evidence that GIE stiffness is dependent on the cytoplasmic domain of STEVOR that interacts with ankyrin complex at the erythrocyte skeleton. Moreover, we show that GIE deformability is regulated by protein kinase A (PKA)-mediated phosphorylation of the STEVOR C-terminal domain at a specific serine residue (S324). Finally, we show that the increase of GIE stiffness induced by sildenafil (Viagra) is dependent on STEVOR phosphorylation status and on another independent mechanism. These data provide new insights into mechanisms by which phosphodiesterase inhibitors may block malaria parasite transmission.

cAMP-Signalling Regulates Gametocyte-Infected Erythrocyte Deformability Required for Malaria Parasite Transmission.

Blocking Plasmodium falciparum transmission to mosquitoes has been designated a strategic objective in the global agenda of malaria elimination. Transmission is ensured by gametocyte-infected erythrocytes (GIE) that sequester in the bone marrow and at maturation are released into peripheral blood from where they are taken up during a mosquito blood meal. Release into the blood circulation is accompanied by an increase in GIE deformability that allows them to pass through the spleen. Here, we used a microsphere matrix to mimic splenic filtration and investigated the role of cAMP-signalling in regulating GIE deformability. We demonstrated that mature GIE deformability is dependent on reduced cAMP-signalling and on increased phosphodiesterase expression in stage V gametocytes, and that parasite cAMP-dependent kinase activity contributes to the stiffness of immature gametocytes. Importantly, pharmacological agents that raise cAMP levels in transmissible stage V gametocytes render them less deformable and hence less likely to circulate through the spleen. Therefore, phosphodiesterase inhibitors that raise cAMP levels in P. falciparum infected erythrocytes, such as sildenafil, represent new candidate drugs to block transmission of malaria parasites.