Recent insights into the causes and consequences of chromosome mis-segregation.

Mitotic cells face the challenging task of ensuring accurate and equal segregation of their duplicated, condensed chromosomes between the nascent daughter cells. Errors in the process result in chromosome missegregation, a significant consequence of which is the emergence of aneuploidy-characterized by an imbalance in chromosome number-and the associated phenomenon of chromosome instability (CIN). Aneuploidy and CIN are common features of cancer, which leverages them to promote genome heterogeneity and plasticity, thereby facilitating rapid tumor evolution. Recent research has provided insights into how mitotic errors shape cancer genomes by inducing both numerical and structural chromosomal changes that drive tumor initiation and progression. In this review, we survey recent findings regarding the mitotic causes and consequences of aneuploidy. We discuss new findings into the types of chromosome segregation errors that lead to aneuploidy and novel pathways that protect genome integrity during mitosis. Finally, we describe new developments in our understanding of the immediate consequences of chromosome mis-segregation on the genome stability of daughter cells.

The substrate quality of CK2 target sites has a determinant role on their function and evolution.

Most biological processes are regulated by signaling modules that bind to short linear motifs. For protein kinases, substrates may have full or only partial matches to the kinase recognition motif, a property known as "substrate quality." However, it is not clear whether differences in substrate quality represent neutral variation or if they have functional consequences. We examine this question for the kinase CK2, which has many fundamental functions. We show that optimal CK2 sites are phosphorylated at maximal stoichiometries and found in many conditions, whereas minimal substrates are more weakly phosphorylated and have regulatory functions. Optimal CK2 sites tend to be more conserved, and substrate quality is often tuned by selection. For intermediate sites, increases or decreases in substrate quality may be deleterious, as we demonstrate for a CK2 substrate at the kinetochore. The results together suggest a strong role for substrate quality in phosphosite function and evolution. A record of this paper's transparent peer review process is included in the supplemental information.

Knockdown of CKAP2 Inhibits Proliferation, Migration, and Aggregate Formation in Aggressive Breast Cancer.

Loss of mitotic regulation is commonly observed in cancer and is a major cause of whole-chromosome aneuploidy. The identification of genes that play a role in the proper progression of mitosis can help us to understand the development and evolution of this disease. Here, we generated a list of proteins implicated in mitosis that we used to probe a patient-derived breast cancer (BC) continuum gene-expression dataset generated by our group by human transcriptome analysis of breast lesions of varying aggressiveness (from normal to invasive). We identified cytoskeleton-associated protein 2 (CKAP2) as an important mitotic regulator in invasive BC. The results showed that CKAP2 is overexpressed in invasive BC tumors when compared with normal tissues, and highly expressed in all BC subtypes. Higher expression of CKAP2 is also related to a worse prognosis in overall survival and relapse-free survival in estrogen receptor (ER)-positive and human epidermal growth factor receptor type 2 (HER2)-negative BC patients. Knockdown of CKAP2 in SKBR3 cells impaired cell proliferation and cell migration and reduced aggregate formation in a 3D culture. Our results show the important role of CKAP2 in BC tumorigenesis, and its potential utility as a prognostic marker in BC.

A commercial ARHGEF17/TEM4 antibody cross-reacts with Nuclear Mitotic Apparatus protein 1 (NuMA).

The Rho family Guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) ARHGEF17 (also known as TEM4) is a large protein with only 3 annotated regions: an N-terminal actin-binding domain, a Rho-specific dbl homology (DH)- pleckstrin homology (PH) type GEF domain and a seven bladed ß propeller fold at the C-terminus with unknown function. TEM4 has been implicated in numerous activities that rely on regulation of the cytoskeleton including cell migration, cell-cell junction formation and the spindle assembly checkpoint during mitosis. Here we have assessed the specificity of a TEM4 polyclonal antibody that has been commonly used as a Western blotting and immunocytochemistry probe for TEM4 in mammalian cells. We find that this antibody, in addition to its intended target, cross-reacts with the Nuclear Mitotic Apparatus Protein 1 (NuMA) in Western blotting and immunoprecipitation, and detects NuMA preferentially in immunocytochemistry. This cross-reactivity, with an abundant chromatin- and mitotic spindle-associated factor, is likely to affect the interpretation of experiments that make use of this antibody probe, in particular by immunocytochemistry and immunoprecipitation.

EPH receptor tyrosine kinases phosphorylate the PAR-3 scaffold protein to modulate downstream signaling networks.

EPH receptors (EPHRs) constitute the largest family among receptor tyrosine kinases in humans. They are mainly involved in short-range cell-cell communication events that regulate cell adhesion, migration, and boundary formation. However, the molecular mechanisms by which EPHRs control these processes are less understood. To address this, we unravel EPHR-associated complexes under native conditions using mass-spectrometry-based BioID proximity labeling. We obtain a composite proximity network from EPHA4, -B2, -B3, and -B4 that comprises 395 proteins, most of which were not previously linked to EPHRs. We examine the contribution of several BioID-identified candidates via loss-of-function in an EPHR-dependent cell-segregation assay. We find that the signaling scaffold PAR-3 is required for cell sorting and that EPHRs directly phosphorylate PAR-3. We also delineate a signaling complex involving the C-terminal SRC kinase (CSK), whose recruitment to PAR-3 is dependent on EPHR signals. Our work describes signaling networks by which EPHRs regulate cellular phenotypes.

Considerations for studying phosphorylation of the mitotic checkpoint pseudokinase BUBR1.

Budding uninhibited by benzimidazole 1-related protein 1 (BUBR1) is a mitotic checkpoint (better known as the spindle assembly checkpoint) protein that forms part of an inhibitory complex required to delay mitosis when errors occur in the attachment between chromosomes and the mitotic spindle. If these errors remain uncorrected, it could result in unequal distribution of genetic material to each of the nascent daughter cells, leading to potentially disastrous consequences at both the cellular and organismal level. In some higher eukaryotes including vertebrates, BUBR1 has a C-terminal kinase fold that is largely thought to be inactive, whereas in many species this domain has been lost through evolution and the truncated protein is known as mitotic arrest deficient 3 (MAD3). Here we present advice and practical considerations for the design of experiments, their analysis and interpretation to study the functions of the vertebrate BUBR1 during mitosis with emphasis on analysis implicating the pseudokinase domain.

The spindle checkpoint proteins BUB1 and BUBR1: (SLiM)ming down to the basics.

Benzimidazole 1 (BUB1) and budding uninhibited by benzimidazole 1-related 1 (BUBR1) are multidomain paralogs with key roles in chromosome alignment during mitosis and the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC), an evolutionarily conserved signaling pathway that monitors errors in chromosome segregation during cell division in eukaryotes. Although BUB1 and BUBR1 share a similar domain organization and short linear interaction motifs (SLiMs), they control distinct aspects of chromosome congression and the SAC. Here we discuss the roles of BUB1 and BUBR1 SLiMs in mitosis and complement this with additional insights gleamed from studying their evolution. We show that BUB1 and BUBR1 SLiMs form highly specific interactions that are carefully orchestrated in space and time and contend that they define BUB1 and BUBR1 as organizing hubs that drive SAC signaling and ensure genome stability.

ZNF768 links oncogenic RAS to cellular senescence.

RAS proteins are GTPases that lie upstream of a signaling network impacting cell fate determination. How cells integrate RAS activity to balance proliferation and cellular senescence is still incompletely characterized. Here, we identify ZNF768 as a phosphoprotein destabilized upon RAS activation. We report that ZNF768 depletion impairs proliferation and induces senescence by modulating the expression of key cell cycle effectors and established p53 targets. ZNF768 levels decrease in response to replicative-, stress- and oncogene-induced senescence. Interestingly, ZNF768 overexpression contributes to bypass RAS-induced senescence by repressing the p53 pathway. Furthermore, we show that ZNF768 interacts with and represses p53 phosphorylation and activity. Cancer genomics and immunohistochemical analyses reveal that ZNF768 is often amplified and/or overexpressed in tumors, suggesting that cells could use ZNF768 to bypass senescence, sustain proliferation and promote malignant transformation. Thus, we identify ZNF768 as a protein linking oncogenic signaling to the control of cell fate decision and proliferation.

The Inhibitory Receptor CLEC12A Regulates PI3K-Akt Signaling to Inhibit Neutrophil Activation and Cytokine Release.

The myeloid inhibitory C-type lectin receptor CLEC12A limits neutrophil activation, pro-inflammatory pathways and disease in mouse models of inflammatory arthritis by a molecular mechanism that remains poorly understood. We addressed how CLEC12A-mediated inhibitory signaling counteracts activating signaling by cross-linking CLEC12A in human neutrophils. CLEC12A cross-linking induced its translocation to flotillin-rich membrane domains where its ITIM was phosphorylated in a Src-dependent manner. Phosphoproteomic analysis identified candidate signaling molecules regulated by CLEC12A that include MAPKs, phosphoinositol kinases and members of the JAK-STAT pathway. Stimulating neutrophils with uric acid crystals, the etiological agent of gout, drove the hyperphosphorylation of p38 and Akt. Ultimately, one of the pathways through which CLEC12A regulates uric acid crystal-stimulated release of IL-8 by neutrophils is through a p38/PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. In summary this work defines early molecular events that underpin CLEC12A signaling in human neutrophils to modulate cytokine synthesis. Targeting this pathway could be useful therapeutically to dampen inflammation.

Adventures of the undead at kinetochores.

At the metaphase-to-anaphase transition, phosphatase activity feeds back to reverse early mitotic phosphorylation events. Our recent work indicates that the pseudokinase domain of the spindle checkpoint protein BUB1 (Budding Uninhibited by Benzimidazoles 1) mitotic checkpoint serine/threonine kinase B (BUB1B, BUBR1) maintains kinase-phosphatase balance at the outer kinetochore during mitotic exit.

ZNF768: controlling cellular senescence and proliferation with ten fingers.

We recently identified Zinc-finger protein 768 (ZNF768) as a novel transcription factor controlling cell fate decision downstream of Rat sarcoma virus (RAS). We showed that ZNF768 depletion impairs cell cycle progression and triggers cellular senescence, while its overexpression allows cells to bypass oncogene-induced senescence. Elevated ZNF768 levels is common in tumors, suggesting that ZNF768 may help to escape cellular senescence, sustain proliferation and promote malignant transformation. Here, we discuss these recent findings and highlight key questions emerging from our work.

A quantitative and semiautomated method for determining misaligned and lagging chromosomes during mitosis.

Accurate chromosome alignment at metaphase facilitates the equal segregation of sister chromatids to each of the nascent daughter cells. Lack of proper metaphase alignment is an indicator of defective chromosome congression and aberrant kinetochore-microtubule attachments which in turn promotes chromosome missegregation and aneuploidy, hallmarks of cancer. Tools to sensitively, accurately, and quantitatively measure chromosome alignment at metaphase will facilitate understanding of the contribution of chromosome segregation errors to the development of aneuploidy. In this work, we have developed and validated a method based on analytical geometry to measure several indicators of chromosome misalignment. We generated semiautomated and flexible ImageJ2/Fiji pipelines to quantify kinetochore misalignment at metaphase plates as well as lagging chromosomes at anaphase. These tools will ultimately allow sensitive and systematic quantitation of these chromosome segregation defects in cells undergoing mitosis.

Moonlighting at the Centrosome: RXRα Turns to Plk1.

One of the hardest working mitotic proteins, Polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1), functions at mitotic entry, cytokinesis, and many steps in between. In this issue, Xie et al. (2020) describe a centrosome-specific interaction between PLK1 and Retinoid X Receptor-α and they test selective inhibition of this interaction as an anti-mitotic cancer therapy.

BUBR1 Pseudokinase Domain Promotes Kinetochore PP2A-B56 Recruitment, Spindle Checkpoint Silencing, and Chromosome Alignment.

The balance of phospho-signaling at the outer kinetochore is critical for forming accurate attachments between kinetochores and the mitotic spindle and timely exit from mitosis. A major player in determining this balance is the PP2A-B56 phosphatase, which is recruited to the kinase attachment regulatory domain (KARD) of budding uninhibited by benzimidazole 1-related 1 (BUBR1) in a phospho-dependent manner. This unleashes a rapid, switch-like phosphatase relay that reverses mitotic phosphorylation at the kinetochore, extinguishing the checkpoint and promoting anaphase. Here, we demonstrate that the C-terminal pseudokinase domain of human BUBR1 is required to promote KARD phosphorylation. Mutation or removal of the pseudokinase domain results in decreased PP2A-B56 recruitment to the outer kinetochore attenuated checkpoint silencing and errors in chromosome alignment as a result of imbalance in Aurora B activity. Our data, therefore, elucidate a function for the BUBR1 pseudokinase domain in ensuring accurate and timely exit from mitosis.

Recent Progress on the Localization of the Spindle Assembly Checkpoint Machinery to Kinetochores.

Faithful chromosome segregation during mitosis is crucial for maintaining genome stability. The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) is a surveillance mechanism that ensures accurate mitotic progression. Defective SAC signaling leads to premature sister chromatid separation and aneuploid daughter cells. Mechanistically, the SAC couples the kinetochore microtubule attachment status to the cell cycle progression machinery. In the presence of abnormal kinetochore microtubule attachments, the SAC prevents the metaphase-to-anaphase transition through a complex kinase-phosphatase signaling cascade which results in the correct balance of SAC components recruited to the kinetochore. The correct kinetochore localization of SAC proteins is a prerequisite for robust SAC signaling and, hence, accurate chromosome segregation. Here, we review recent progresses on the kinetochore recruitment of core SAC factors.

A type 2 diabetes disease module with a high collective influence for Cdk2 and PTPLAD1 is localized in endosomes.

Despite the identification of many susceptibility genes our knowledge of the underlying mechanisms responsible for complex disease remains limited. Here, we identified a type 2 diabetes disease module in endosomes, and validate it for functional relevance on selected nodes. Using hepatic Golgi/endosomes fractions, we established a proteome of insulin receptor-containing endosomes that allowed the study of physical protein interaction networks on a type 2 diabetes background. The resulting collated network is formed by 313 nodes and 1147 edges with a topology organized around a few major hubs with Cdk2 displaying the highest collective influence. Overall, 88% of the nodes are associated with the type 2 diabetes genetic risk, including 101 new candidates. The Type 2 diabetes module is enriched with cytoskeleton and luminal acidification-dependent processes that are shared with secretion-related mechanisms. We identified new signaling pathways driven by Cdk2 and PTPLAD1 whose expression affects the association of the insulin receptor with TUBA, TUBB, the actin component ACTB and the endosomal sorting markers Rab5c and Rab11a. Therefore, the interactome of internalized insulin receptors reveals the presence of a type 2 diabetes disease module enriched in new layers of feedback loops required for insulin signaling, clearance and islet biology.

Proteomic Analysis of NCK1/2 Adaptors Uncovers Paralog-specific Interactions That Reveal a New Role for NCK2 in Cell Abscission During Cytokinesis.

Signals from cell surface receptors are often relayed via adaptor proteins. NCK1 and NCK2 are Src-Homology (SH) 2 and 3 domain adaptors that regulate processes requiring a remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton. Evidence from gene inactivation in mouse suggests that NCK1 and NCK2 are functionally redundant, although recent reports support the idea of unique functions for NCK1 and NCK2. We sought to examine this question further by delineating NCK1- and NCK2-specific signaling networks. We used both affinity purification-mass spectrometry and BioID proximity labeling to identify NCK1/2 signaling networks comprised of 98 proteins. Strikingly, we found 30 proteins restricted to NCK1 and 28 proteins specifically associated with NCK2, suggesting differences in their function. We report that Nck2-/-, but not Nck1-/- mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEFs) are multinucleated and display extended protrusions reminiscent of intercellular bridges, which correlate with an extended time spent in cytokinesis as well as a failure of a significant proportion of cells to complete abscission. Our data also show that the midbody of NCK2-deficient cells is not only increased in length, but also altered in composition, as judged by the mislocalization of AURKB, PLK1 and ECT2. Finally, we show that NCK2 function during cytokinesis requires its SH2 domain. Taken together, our data delineate the first high-confidence interactome for NCK1/2 adaptors and highlight several proteins specifically associated with either protein. Thus, contrary to what is generally accepted, we demonstrate that NCK1 and NCK2 are not completely redundant, and shed light on a previously uncharacterized function for the NCK2 adaptor protein in cell division.

Mps1 Phosphorylates Its N-Terminal Extension to Relieve Autoinhibition and Activate the Spindle Assembly Checkpoint.

Monopolar spindle 1 (Mps1) is a conserved apical kinase in the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) that ensures accurate segregation of chromosomes during mitosis. Mps1 undergoes extensive auto- and transphosphorylation, but the regulatory and functional consequences of these modifications remain unclear. Recent findings highlight the importance of intermolecular interactions between the N-terminal extension (NTE) of Mps1 and the Hec1 subunit of the NDC80 complex, which control Mps1 localization at kinetochores and activation of the SAC. Whether the NTE regulates other mitotic functions of Mps1 remains unknown. Here, we report that phosphorylation within the NTE contributes to Mps1 activation through relief of catalytic autoinhibition that is mediated by the NTE itself. Moreover, we find that this regulatory NTE function is independent of its role in Mps1 kinetochore recruitment. We demonstrate that the NTE autoinhibitory mechanism impinges most strongly on Mps1-dependent SAC functions and propose that Mps1 activation likely occurs sequentially through dimerization of a "prone-to-autophosphorylate" Mps1 conformer followed by autophosphorylation of the NTE prior to maximal kinase activation segment trans-autophosphorylation. Our observations underline the importance of autoregulated Mps1 activity in generation and maintenance of a robust SAC in human cells.

Tyr(less) kinase signaling during mitosis.

Tyrosine phosphorylation is rare, representing only about 0.5% of phosphorylations in the cell under basal conditions. While mitogenic tyrosine kinase signaling has been extensively explored, the role of phosphotyrosine signaling across the cell cycle and in particular during mitosis is poorly understood. Two recent, independent studies tackled this question from different angles to reveal exciting new insights into the role of this modification during cell division. Caron et al. 1 exploited mitotic phosphoproteomics data sets to determine the extent of mitotic tyrosine phosphorylation, and St-Denis et al. 2 identified protein tyrosine phosphatases from all subfamilies as regulators of mitotic progression or spindle formation. These studied collectively revealed that tyrosine phosphorylation may play a more prominent and active role in mitotic progression than previously appreciated.