Mitoxantrone ameliorates ineffective erythropoiesis in a ß-thalassemia intermedia mouse model.

ß-thalassemia is a condition characterized by reduced or absent synthesis of ß-globin resulting from genetic mutations, leading to expanded and ineffective erythropoiesis. Mitoxantrone has been widely used clinically as an antitumor agent in light of its ability to inhibit cell proliferation. However, its therapeutic effect on expanded and ineffective erythropoiesis in ß-thalassemia is untested. We found that mitoxantrone decreased α-globin precipitates and ameliorated anemia, splenomegaly and ineffective erythropoiesis in the HbbTh3/+ mouse model of ß-thalassemia intermedia. The partially reversed ineffective erythropoiesis is a consequence of effects on autophagy as mitochondrial retention and protein levels of mTOR, P62 and LC3 in reticulocytes decreased in mitoxantrone-treated HbbTh3/+ mice. These data provide significant pre-clinical evidence for targeting autophagy as a novel therapeutic approach for ß-thalassemia.

Rusfertide, a Hepcidin Mimetic, for Control of Erythrocytosis in Polycythemia Vera.

BACKGROUND: Polycythemia vera is a chronic myeloproliferative neoplasm characterized by erythrocytosis. Rusfertide, an injectable peptide mimetic of the master iron regulatory hormone hepcidin, restricts the availability of iron for erythropoiesis. The safety and efficacy of rusfertide in patients with phlebotomy-dependent polycythemia vera are unknown. METHODS: In part 1 of the international, phase 2 REVIVE trial, we enrolled patients in a 28-week dose-finding assessment of rusfertide. Part 2 was a double-blind, randomized withdrawal period in which we assigned patients, in a 1:1 ratio, to receive rusfertide or placebo for 12 weeks. The primary efficacy end point was a response, defined by hematocrit control, absence of phlebotomy, and completion of the trial regimen during part 2. Patient-reported outcomes were assessed by means of the modified Myeloproliferative Neoplasm Symptom Assessment Form (MPN-SAF) patient diary (scores range from 0 to 10, with higher scores indicating greater severity of symptoms). RESULTS: Seventy patients were enrolled in part 1 of the trial, and 59 were assigned to receive rusfertide (30 patients) or placebo (29 patients) in part 2. The estimated mean (±SD) number of phlebotomies per year was 8.7±2.9 during the 28 weeks before the first dose of rusfertide and 0.6±1.0 during part 1 (estimated difference, 8.1 phlebotomies per year). The mean maximum hematocrit was 44.5±2.2% during part 1 as compared with 50.0±5.8% during the 28 weeks before the first dose of rusfertide. During part 2, a response was observed in 60% of the patients who received rusfertide as compared with 17% of those who received placebo (P = 0.002). Between baseline and the end of part 1, rusfertide treatment was associated with a decrease in individual symptom scores on the MPN-SAF in patients with moderate or severe symptoms at baseline. During parts 1 and 2, grade 3 adverse events occurred in 13% of the patients, and none of the patients had a grade 4 or 5 event. Injection-site reactions of grade 1 or 2 in severity were common. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with polycythemia vera, rusfertide treatment was associated with a mean hematocrit of less than 45% during the 28-week dose-finding period, and the percentage of patients with a response during the 12-week randomized withdrawal period was greater with rusfertide than with placebo. (Funded by Protagonist Therapeutics; REVIVE ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT04057040.).

The hepatokine FGL1 regulates hepcidin and iron metabolism during anemia in mice by antagonizing BMP signaling.

ABSTRACT: As a functional component of erythrocyte hemoglobin, iron is essential for oxygen delivery to all tissues in the body. The liver-derived peptide hepcidin is the master regulator of iron homeostasis. During anemia, the erythroid hormone erythroferrone regulates hepcidin synthesis to ensure the adequate supply of iron to the bone marrow for red blood cell production. However, mounting evidence suggested that another factor may exert a similar function. We identified the hepatokine fibrinogen-like 1 (FGL1) as a previously undescribed suppressor of hepcidin that is induced in the liver in response to hypoxia during the recovery from anemia, and in thalassemic mice. We demonstrated that FGL1 is a potent suppressor of hepcidin in vitro and in vivo. Deletion of Fgl1 in mice results in higher hepcidin levels at baseline and after bleeding. FGL1 exerts its activity by directly binding to bone morphogenetic protein 6 (BMP6), thereby inhibiting the canonical BMP-SMAD signaling cascade that controls hepcidin transcription.

Hepcidin and its multiple partners: Complex regulation of iron metabolism in health and disease.

The peptide hormone hepcidin is central to the regulation of iron metabolism, influencing the movement of iron into the circulation and determining total body iron stores. Its effect on a cellular level involves binding ferroportin, the main iron export protein, preventing iron egress and leading to iron sequestration within ferroportin-expressing cells. Hepcidin expression is enhanced by iron loading and inflammation and suppressed by erythropoietic stimulation. Aberrantly increased hepcidin leads to systemic iron deficiency and/or iron restricted erythropoiesis as occurs in anemia of chronic inflammation. Furthermore, insufficiently elevated hepcidin occurs in multiple diseases associated with iron overload such as hereditary hemochromatosis and iron loading anemias. Abnormal iron metabolism as a consequence of hepcidin dysregulation is an underlying factor resulting in pathophysiology of multiple diseases and several agents aimed at manipulating this pathway have been designed, with some already in clinical trials. In this chapter, we assess the complex regulation of hepcidin, delineate the many binding partners involved in its regulation, and present an update on the development of hepcidin agonists and antagonists in various clinical scenarios.

The hepatokine FGL1 regulates hepcidin and iron metabolism during the recovery from hemorrhage-induced anemia in mice.

As a functional component of erythrocyte hemoglobin, iron is essential for oxygen delivery to all tissues in the body. The liver-derived peptide hepcidin is the master regulator of iron homeostasis. During anemia, the erythroid hormone erythroferrone regulates hepcidin synthesis to ensure adequate supply of iron to the bone marrow for red blood cells production. However, mounting evidence suggested that another factor may exert a similar function. We identified the hepatokine FGL1 as a previously undescribed suppressor of hepcidin that is induced in the liver in response to hypoxia during the recovery from anemia and in thalassemic mice. We demonstrated that FGL1 is a potent suppressor of hepcidin in vitro and in vivo . Deletion of Fgl1 in mice results in a blunted repression of hepcidin after bleeding. FGL1 exerts its activity by direct binding to BMP6, thereby inhibiting the canonical BMP-SMAD signaling cascade that controls hepcidin transcription. Key points: 1/ FGL1 regulates iron metabolism during the recovery from anemia. 2/ FGL1 is an antagonist of the BMP/SMAD signaling pathway.

Single-cell profiling of ineffective erythropoiesis in a mouse model of ß-thalassaemia intermedia.

Beta-thalassaemia is an inherited haemoglobin disorder characterised by ineffective erythropoiesis (IE). The detailed pathogenesis of IE remains unclear. In this study, we used single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) to examine IE in Th3/+ ß-thalassaemic mice. The results showed that the erythroid group was remarkably expanded, and genes involved in biological processes such as iron metabolism, haeme synthesis, protein folding, and response to heat were significantly upregulated from erythroid progenitors to reticulocytes in ß-thalassaemic mice. In particular, we identified a unique cell population close to reticulocytes, named ThReticulocytes, characterised by a high level of heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) expression and dysregulation of iron metabolism and haeme synthesis signalling. Treatment of ß-thalassaemic mice with the haeme oxygenase inhibitor tin-mesoporphyrin effectively improved the iron disorder and IE, and the ThReticulocyte population and Hsp70 expression were significantly suppressed. This study revealed in detail the progression of IE at the single-cell level and possibly provided clues to find therapeutic targets in thalassaemia.

Dietary iron restriction protects against vaso-occlusion and organ damage in murine sickle cell disease.

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is an inherited disorder resulting from a ß-globin gene mutation, and SCD patients experience erythrocyte sickling, vaso-occlusive episodes (VOE), and progressive organ damage. Chronic hemolysis, inflammation, and repeated red blood cell transfusions in SCD can disrupt iron homeostasis. Patients who receive multiple blood transfusions develop iron overload, and another subpopulation of SCD patients manifest iron deficiency. To elucidate connections between dietary iron, the microbiome, and SCD pathogenesis, we treated SCD mice with an iron-restricted diet (IRD). IRD treatment reduced iron availability and hemolysis, decreased acute VOE, and ameliorated chronic organ damage in SCD mice. Our results extend previous studies indicating that the gut microbiota regulate disease in SCD mice. IRD alters microbiota load and improves gut integrity, together preventing crosstalk between the gut microbiome and inflammatory factors such as aged neutrophils, dampening VOE, and organ damage. These findings provide strong evidence for the therapeutic potential of manipulating iron homeostasis and the gut microbiome to ameliorate SCD pathophysiology. Many treatments, which are under development, focus on lowering the systemic iron concentration to relieve disease complications, and our data suggest that iron-induced changes in microbiota load and gut integrity are related- and novel-therapeutic targets.

Tmprss6-ASO as a tool for the treatment of Polycythemia Vera mice.

Polycythemia Vera (PV) is a chronic myeloproliferative neoplasm resulting from an acquired driver mutation in the JAK2 gene of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells resulting in the overproduction of mature erythrocytes and abnormally high hematocrit, in turn leading to thromboembolic complications. Therapeutic phlebotomy is the most common treatment to reduce the hematocrit levels and consequently decrease thromboembolic risk. Here we demonstrate that, by using the iron restrictive properties of the antisense oligonucleotides against Tmprss6 mRNA, we can increase hepcidin to achieve effects equivalent to therapeutic phlebotomy. We provide evidence that this less invasive approach could represent an additional therapeutic tool for the treatment of PV patients.

Pleckstrin-2 is essential for erythropoiesis in ß-thalassemic mice, reducing apoptosis and enhancing enucleation.

Erythropoiesis involves complex interrelated molecular signals influencing cell survival, differentiation, and enucleation. Diseases associated with ineffective erythropoiesis, such as ß-thalassemias, exhibit erythroid expansion and defective enucleation. Clear mechanistic determinants of what make erythropoiesis effective are lacking. We previously demonstrated that exogenous transferrin ameliorates ineffective erythropoiesis in ß-thalassemic mice. In the current work, we utilize transferrin treatment to elucidate a molecular signature of ineffective erythropoiesis in ß-thalassemia. We hypothesize that compensatory mechanisms are required in ß-thalassemic erythropoiesis to prevent apoptosis and enhance enucleation. We identify pleckstrin-2-a STAT5-dependent lipid binding protein downstream of erythropoietin-as an important regulatory node. We demonstrate that partial loss of pleckstrin-2 leads to worsening ineffective erythropoiesis and pleckstrin-2 knockout leads to embryonic lethality in ß-thalassemic mice. In addition, the membrane-associated active form of pleckstrin-2 occurs at an earlier stage during ß-thalassemic erythropoiesis. Furthermore, membrane-associated activated pleckstrin-2 decreases cofilin mitochondrial localization in ß-thalassemic erythroblasts and pleckstrin-2 knockdown in vitro induces cofilin-mediated apoptosis in ß-thalassemic erythroblasts. Lastly, pleckstrin-2 enhances enucleation by interacting with and activating RacGTPases in ß-thalassemic erythroblasts. This data elucidates the important compensatory role of pleckstrin-2 in ß-thalassemia and provides support for the development of targeted therapeutics in diseases of ineffective erythropoiesis.

Tackling the unknowns in understanding and management of hospital acquired anemia.

Hospital acquired anemia (HAA) has been a recognized entity for nearly 50 years. Despite multiple hypotheses, a mechanistic understanding is lacking, and targeted interventions have not yet yielded significantly impactful results. Known risk factors include advanced age, multiple co-morbidities, low bone marrow reserve, admission to the intensive care unit, and frequent phlebotomy. However, confounding variables in many studies continues to complicate the identification of additional risk factors. Improved understanding of iron metabolism, erythropoiesis, and the erythroid iron restriction response in the last few decades, as well as the recent demonstration of poor outcomes correlating with increased transfusion have refocused attention on HAA. While retrospective database studies provide ample correlative data between 1) HAA and poor outcomes; 2) reduction of phlebotomy volume and decrease in transfusion requirement; and 3) over-transfusion and increased mortality, no causal link between reduced phlebotomy volume, decreased rates of HAA, and improved mortality or other relevant outcomes have been definitely established. Here, we review the current state of knowledge and provide a summary of potential directions to understand and mitigate HAA. There are at present no clear guidelines on whether and when to evaluate hospitalized patients for underlying causes of anemia. We thus provide a guide for clinicians in general practice toward identifying patients at the highest risk for HAA, decreasing blood loss through phlebotomy to the greatest degree feasible, and evaluating and treating reversible causes of anemia in a targeted population.

Clinical insights into the origins of thrombosis in myeloproliferative neoplasms.

Philadelphia chromosome-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs), polycythemia vera, essential thrombocythemia, and primary myelofibrosis, are hematopoietic stem cell disorders that are defined by activating mutations in signal transduction pathways and are characterized clinically by the overproduction of platelets, red blood cells, and neutrophils, significant burden of disease-specific symptoms, and high rates of vascular events. The focus of this review is to critically reevaluate the clinical burden of thrombosis in MPNs, to review the clinical associations among clonal hematopoiesis, JAK2V617F burden, inflammation, and thrombosis, and to provide insights into novel primary and secondary thrombosis-prevention strategies.

Vitamin D Receptor Controls Cell Stemness in Acute Myeloid Leukemia and in Normal Bone Marrow.

Vitamin D (VD) is a known differentiating agent, but the role of VD receptor (VDR) is still incompletely described in acute myeloid leukemia (AML), whose treatment is based mostly on antimitotic chemotherapy. Here, we present an unexpected role of VDR in normal hematopoiesis and in leukemogenesis. Limited VDR expression is associated with impaired myeloid progenitor differentiation and is a new prognostic factor in AML. In mice, the lack of Vdr results in increased numbers of hematopoietic and leukemia stem cells and quiescent hematopoietic stem cells. In addition, malignant transformation of Vdr-/- cells results in myeloid differentiation block and increases self-renewal. Vdr promoter is methylated in AML as in CD34+ cells, and demethylating agents induce VDR expression. Association of VDR agonists with hypomethylating agents promotes leukemia stem cell exhaustion and decreases tumor burden in AML mouse models. Thus, Vdr functions as a regulator of stem cell homeostasis and leukemic propagation.

Minihepcidins improve ineffective erythropoiesis and splenomegaly in a new mouse model of adult ß-thalassemia major.

Minihepcidins are hepcidin agonists that have been previously shown to reverse iron overload and improve erythropoiesis in mice affected by non-transfusion-dependent thalassemia. Given the extreme anemia that occurred with the previous model of transfusion-dependent thalassemia, that model was inadequate for investigating whether minihepcidins can improve red blood cell quality, lifespan and ineffective erythropoiesis. To overcome this limitation, we generated a new murine model of transfusion-dependent thalassemia with severe anemia and splenomegaly, but sufficient red cells and hemoglobin production to test the effect of minihepcidins. Furthermore, this new model demonstrates cardiac iron overload for the first time. In the absence of transfusions, minihepcidins improved red blood cell morphology and lifespan as well as ineffective erythropoiesis. Administration of a minihepcidin in combination with chronic red blood cell transfusion further improved the ineffective erythropoiesis and splenomegaly and reversed cardiac iron overload. These studies indicate that drugs such as minihepcidins have therapeutic potential for patients with transfusion-dependent thalassemia.

New diagnostic tools for delineating iron status.

Recent advances in our understanding of iron metabolism regulation and crosstalk with erythropoiesis have provided insight into the pathophysiology of multiple disease conditions. For instance, the peptide hormone hepcidin is central to the regulation of iron metabolism. Its effect on cellular iron concentration involves binding ferroportin, the main iron export protein, resulting in its internalization and degradation and leading to iron sequestration within ferroportin-expressing cells. Furthermore, hepcidin regulation by erythropoiesis is attributed in large part to a bone marrow-derived hormone erythroferrone. Erythroferrone-induced hepcidin suppression in diseases of expanded hematopoiesis results in iron overload. Conversely, diseases, such as iron refractory iron deficiency anemia and anemia of chronic inflammation, are characterized by aberrantly increased hepcidin, resulting in iron sequestration and decreased circulating iron and eventually leading to iron-restricted erythropoiesis. Lastly, because iron functions in concert with erythropoietin to promote erythroid precursor survival, proliferation, and differentiation, iron deficiency anemia is a consequence not only of decreased hemoglobin synthesis in each cell but also, a decrease in erythropoietin responsiveness in the bone marrow. How to translate this new information to the clinical setting has not been fully elucidated. The purpose of this manuscript is to summarize current standard tools for identifying iron deficiency in anemic patients; explore the tools and context for evaluating novel markers, such as hepcidin, erythroferrone, and markers of the iron restriction response; and assess available evidence for how their use could increase our understanding of health outcomes in clinically challenging cases.

Lobe specificity of iron binding to transferrin modulates murine erythropoiesis and iron homeostasis.

Transferrin, the major plasma iron-binding molecule, interacts with cell-surface receptors to deliver iron, modulates hepcidin expression, and regulates erythropoiesis. Transferrin binds and releases iron via either or both of 2 homologous lobes (N and C). To test the hypothesis that the specificity of iron occupancy in the N vs C lobe influences transferrin function, we generated mice with mutations to abrogate iron binding in either lobe (TfN-bl or TfC-bl). Mice homozygous for either mutation had hepatocellular iron loading and decreased liver hepcidin expression (relative to iron concentration), although to different magnitudes. Both mouse models demonstrated some aspects of iron-restricted erythropoiesis, including increased zinc protoporphyrin levels, decreased hemoglobin levels, and microcytosis. Moreover, the TfN-bl/N-bl mice demonstrated the anticipated effect of iron restriction on red cell production (ie, no increase in red blood cell [RBC] count despite elevated erythropoietin levels), along with a poor response to exogenous erythropoietin. In contrast, the TfC-bl/C-bl mice had elevated RBC counts and an exaggerated response to exogenous erythropoietin sufficient to ameliorate the anemia. Observations in heterozygous mice further support a role for relative N vs C lobe iron occupancy in transferrin-mediated regulation of iron homeostasis and erythropoiesis.

Hepcidin-ferroportin axis in health and disease.

Hepcidin is central to regulation of iron metabolism. Its effect on a cellular level involves binding ferroportin, the main iron export protein, resulting in its internalization and degradation and leading to iron sequestration within ferroportin-expressing cells. Aberrantly increased hepcidin leads to systemic iron deficiency and/or iron restricted erythropoiesis. Furthermore, insufficiently elevated hepcidin occurs in multiple diseases associated with iron overload. Abnormal iron metabolism as a consequence of hepcidin dysregulation is an underlying factor resulting in pathophysiology of multiple diseases and several agents aimed at manipulating this pathway have been designed, with some already in clinical trials. In this chapter, we present an overview of and rationale for exploring the development of hepcidin agonists and antagonists in various clinical scenarios.

Dysregulated iron metabolism in polycythemia vera: etiology and consequences.

Polycythemia vera (PV) is a chronic myeloproliferative neoplasm. Virtually all PV patients are iron deficient at presentation and/or during the course of their disease. The co-existence of iron deficiency and polycythemia presents a physiological disconnect. Hepcidin, the master regulator of iron metabolism, is regulated by circulating iron levels, erythroblast secretion of erythroferrone, and inflammation. Both decreased circulating iron and increased erythroferrone levels, which occur as a consequence of erythroid hyperplasia in PV, are anticipated to suppress hepcidin and enable recovery from iron deficiency. Inflammation which accompanies PV is likely to counteract hepcidin suppression, but the relatively low serum ferritin levels observed suggest that inflammation is not a major contributor to the dysregulated iron metabolism. Furthermore, potential defects in iron absorption, aberrant hypoxia sensing and signaling, and frequency of bleeding to account for iron deficiency in PV patients have not been fully elucidated. Insufficiently suppressed hepcidin given the degree of iron deficiency in PV patients strongly suggests that disordered iron metabolism is an important component of the pathobiology of PV. Normalization of hematocrit levels using therapeutic phlebotomy is the most common approach for reducing the incidence of thrombotic complications, a therapy which exacerbates iron deficiency, contributing to a variety of non-hematological symptoms. The use of cytoreductive therapy in high-risk PV patients frequently works more effectively to reverse PV-associated symptoms in iron-deficient relative to iron-replete patients. Lastly, differences in iron-related parameters between PV patients and mice with JAK2 V617F and JAK2 exon 12 mutations suggest that specific regions in JAK2 may influence iron metabolism by nuanced changes of erythropoietin receptor signaling. In this review, we comprehensively discuss the clinical consequences of iron deficiency in PV, provide a framework for understanding the potential dysregulation of iron metabolism, and present a rationale for additional therapeutic options for iron-deficient PV patients.