Structure, Properties and Degradation of Self-Assembled Fibrinogen Nanofiber Scaffolds.

Self-assembled fibrinogen nanofibers are promising candidates for skin tissue engineering due to their biocompatibility and ability to mimic the native blood clot architecture. Here, we studied the structure-property relationship and degradation of rehydrated fibrinogen nanofibers prepared by salt-induced self-assembly, focusing on the effect of scaffold layering, cross-linking time and freeze-drying. Optimal fiber stability was achieved with cross-linking by formaldehyde (FA) vapor, while treatment with liquid aldehydes, genipin, EDC, and transglutaminase failed to preserve the nanofibrous architecture upon rehydration. Scaffold layering did not significantly influence the mechanical properties but changed the scaffold architecture, with bulk fiber scaffolds being more compact than layered scaffolds. Freeze-drying maintained the mechanical properties and interconnected pore network with average pore diameters around 20 µm, which will enhance the storage stability of self-assembled fibrinogen scaffolds. Varying cross-linking times altered the scaffold mechanics without affecting the swelling behavior, indicating that scaffold hydration can be controlled independently of the mechanical characteristics. Cross-linking times of 240 min increased scaffold stiffness and decreased elongation, while 30 min resulted in mechanical properties similar to native skin. Cross-linking for 120 min was found to reduce scaffold degradation by various enzymes in comparison to 60 min. Overall, after 35 days of incubation, plasmin and a combination of urokinase and plasminogen exhibited the strongest degradative effect, with nanofibers being more susceptible to enzymatic degradation than planar fibrinogen due to their higher specific surface area. Based on these results, self-assembled fibrinogen fiber scaffolds show great potential for future applications in soft tissue engineering that require controlled structure-function relationships and degradation characteristics.

A Bio-Inspired Approach to Improve the Toughness of Brittle Bast Fibre-Reinforced Composites Using Cellulose Acetate Foils.

Bast fibre-reinforced plastics are characterised by good strength and stiffness but are often brittle due to the stiff and less ductile fibres. This study uses a biomimetic approach to improve impact strength. Based on the structure of the spicules of a deep-sea glass sponge, in which hard layers of bioglass alternate with soft layers of proteins, the toughness of kenaf/epoxy composites was significantly improved by a multilayer structure of kenaf and cellulose acetate (CA) foils as impact modifiers. Due to the alternating structure, cracks are deflected, and toughness is improved. One to five CA foils were stacked with kenaf layers and processed to composite plates with bio-based epoxy resin by compression moulding. Results have shown a significant improvement in toughness using CA foils due to increased crack propagation. The unnotched Charpy impact strength increased from 9.0 kJ/m2 of the pure kenaf/epoxy composite to 36.3 kJ/m2 for the sample containing five CA foils. The tensile and flexural strength ranged from 74 to 81 MPa and 112 to 125 MPa, respectively. The tensile modulus reached values between 9100 and 10,600 MPa, and the flexural modulus ranged between 7200 and 8100 MPa. The results demonstrate the successful implementation of an abstract transfer of biological role models to improve the toughness of brittle bast fibre-reinforced plastics.

Assembly of Rolled-Up Collagen Constructs on Porous Alumina Textiles.

Developing new techniques to prepare free-standing tubular scaffolds has always been a challenge in the field of regenerative medicine. Here, we report a new and simple way to prepare free-standing collagen constructs with rolled-up architecture by self-assembling nanofibers on porous alumina (Al2O3) textiles modified with different silanes, carbon or gold. Following self-assembly and cross-linking with glutaraldehyde, collagen nanofibers spontaneously rolled up on the modified Al2O3 textiles and detached. The resulting collagen constructs had an inner diameter of approximately 2 to 4 mm in a rolled-up state and could be easily detached from the underlying textiles. Mechanical testing of wet collagen scaffolds following detachment yielded mean values of 3.5 ± 1.9 MPa for the tensile strength, 41.0 ± 20.8 MPa for the Young's modulus and 8.1 ± 3.7% for the elongation at break. No roll-up was observed on Al2O3 textiles without any modification, where collagen did not assemble into fibers, either. Blends of collagen and chitosan were also found to roll into fibrous constructs on silanized Al2O3 textiles, while fibrinogen nanofibers or blends of collagen and elastin did not yield such structures. Based on these differences, we hypothesize that textile surface charge and protein charge, in combination with the porous architecture of protein nanofibers and differences in mechanical strain, are key factors in inducing a scaffold roll-up. Further studies are required to develop the observed roll-up effect into a reproducible biofabrication process that can enable the controlled production of free-standing collagen-based tubes for soft tissue engineering.

Self-assembled fibrinogen nanofibers support fibroblast adhesion and prevent E. coli infiltration.

Fibrinogen nanofibers hold great potential for wound healing applications since they mimic the native blood clot architecture and offer important binding sites to support fibroblast adhesion and migration. Recently, we introduced a new method of salt-induced self-assembly to prepare nanofibrous fibrinogen scaffolds. Here, we present our results on the mechanical properties of these scaffolds and their interaction with 3T3 fibroblasts and E. coli bacteria, which we used as model systems for wound healing. Hydrated, nanofibrous fibrinogen scaffolds showed a Young's modulus of 1.3 MPa, which is close to the range of native fibrin. 3T3 fibroblasts adhered and proliferated well on nanofibrous and planar fibrinogen up to 72 h with a less pronounced actin cytoskeleton on nanofibers in comparison to planar fibrinogen. Fibroblasts on nanofibers were smaller with many short filopodia while larger cells with few long filopodia were found on planar fibrinogen. Live cell tracking revealed higher migration velocities on nanofibers in comparison to planar fibrinogen. The growth of E. coli bacteria on nanofibrous fibrinogen was significantly reduced as compared to agar controls with no bacteria migrating through the nanofibers. In summary, we conclude that self-assembled fibrinogen nanofibers could become highly attractive as future scaffolds for wound healing applications.

Novel Low-Twist Bast Fibre Yarns from Flax Tow for High-Performance Composite Applications.

The use of natural fibres for components subjected to higher mechanical requirements tends to be limited by the high price of high-quality semi-finished products. Therefore, the present study deals with the development of more cost-effective staple fibre yarns made from flax tow. In the subsequent processing stage, the yarns were processed into quasi-unidirectional (UD) fabrics. The results of the fibre characterisation along the process chain have shown that no significant mechanical fibre damage occurs after slivers' production. Fibres prepared from yarns and fabrics show comparable characteristics. The yarns were processed to composites by pultrusion to verify the reinforcement effect. The mechanical properties were comparable to those of composites made from a high-quality UD flax roving. The fabrics were industrially processed into composite laminates using a vacuum infusion and an autoclave injection process (vacuum injection method in an autoclave). While impact strength compared to a reference laminate based on the UD flax roving was achieved, tensile and flexural properties were not reached. An analysis showed that the staple fibre yarns in the fabric show an undulation, leading to a reorientation of the fibres and lower characteristic values, which show 86-92% of the laminate made from the flax roving. Hybrid laminates with outer glass and inner flax layers were manufactured for the intended development of a leaf spring for the bogie of a narrow-gauge railroad as a demonstrator. The hybrid composites display excellent mechanical properties and showed clear advantages over a pure glass fibre-reinforced composite in lightweight construction potential, particularly flexural stiffness.

Functional gradients in the pericarp of the green coconut inspire asymmetric fibre-composites with improved impact strength, and preserved flexural and tensile properties.

Here we investigate the mechanical properties and structural design of the pericarp of the green coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). The pericarp showed excellent impact characteristics, and mechanical tests of its individual components revealed gradients in stiffness, strength and elongation at break from the outer to the inner layer of the pericarp. In order to understand more about the potential effect of such gradients on 'bulk' material properties, we designed simple, graded, cellulose fibre-reinforced polylactide (PLA) composites by stacking layers reinforced with fibres of different mechanical properties. Tensile properties of the graded composites were largely determined by the 'weakest' fibre, irrespective of the fibre distribution. However, a graded design led to pronounced asymmetric bending and impact properties. Bio-inspired, asymmetrically graded composites showed a flexural strength and modulus comparable to that of the strongest reference samples, but the elongation at maximum load was dependent on the specimen orientation. The impact strength of the graded composites showed a similar orientation-dependence, and peak values exceeded the impact strength of a non-graded reference composite containing identical fibre fractions by up to a factor of three. In combination, our results show that an asymmetric, systematic variation of fibre properties can successfully combine desirable properties of different fibre types, suggesting new routes for the development of high-performance composites, and improving our understanding of the structure-function relationship of the coconut pericarp.

Impact and hardness optimisation of composite materials inspired by the babassu nut (Orbignya speciosa).

The babassu nut is the fruit of the babassu palm Orbignya speciosa. The combination of hardness and impact strength is difficult to acquire for artificial materials, making the babassu nut a promising source for biomimetic inspiration. Unnotched Charpy impact tests, Shore D hardness tests and scanning electron microscopy were used for mechanical and microscopical analysis of the pericarp. Four major principles were found for a biomimetic approach: a hard core ((1); endocarp) is embedded in a soft outer layer of high impact strength ((2); epicarp) and is reinforced with fibres of variable fineness (3), some of which are oriented radial to the core (4). Biomimetic fibre-reinforced composites were produced using abstracted mechanisms of the babassu nut based on regenerated cellulose fibres (lyocell, L) with two different fineness values as reinforcement embedded in a polylactide (PLA) core matrix and polypropylene (PP) based outer layers. The biomimetic fibre composite reaches a significantly higher impact strength that is 1.6 times higher than the reference sample produced from a PLA/PP/L-blend. At the same time the hardness is slightly increased compared to PP/L.