Type 1 diabetes prevention clinical trial simulator: Case reports of model-informed drug development tool.

Clinical trials seeking to delay or prevent the onset of type 1 diabetes (T1D) face a series of pragmatic challenges. Despite more than 100 years since the discovery of insulin, teplizumab remains the only FDA-approved therapy to delay progression from Stage 2 to Stage 3 T1D. To increase the efficiency of clinical trials seeking this goal, our project sought to inform T1D clinical trial designs by developing a disease progression model-based clinical trial simulation tool. Using individual-level data collected from the TrialNet Pathway to Prevention and The Environmental Determinants of Diabetes in the Young natural history studies, we previously developed a quantitative joint model to predict the time to T1D onset. We then applied trial-specific inclusion/exclusion criteria, sample sizes in treatment and placebo arms, trial duration, assessment interval, and dropout rate. We implemented a function for presumed drug effects. To increase the size of the population pool, we generated virtual populations using multivariate normal distribution and ctree machine learning algorithms. As an output, power was calculated, which summarizes the probability of success, showing a statistically significant difference in the time distribution until the T1D diagnosis between the two arms. Using this tool, power curves can also be generated through iterations. The web-based tool is publicly available: https://app.cop.ufl.edu/t1d/. Herein, we briefly describe the tool and provide instructions for simulating a planned clinical trial with two case studies. This tool will allow for improved clinical trial designs and accelerate efforts seeking to prevent or delay the onset of T1D.

Early appearance of thyroid autoimmunity in children followed from birth for type 1 diabetes risk.

PURPOSE: Autoantibodies to thyroid peroxidase (TPOAb) and thyroglobulin (TgAb) define pre-clinical autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD) which can progress to either clinical hypo- or hyperthyroidism. We determined the age at seroconversion in children genetically at risk for type 1 diabetes. METHODS: TPOAb and TgAb seropositivity were determined in 5066 healthy children with HLA DR3 or DR4 containing haplogenotypes from The Environmental Determinants of Diabetes in the Young (TEDDY) Study. Children seropositive on the cross-sectional initial screen at 8-13 years of age had longitudinally collected samples (from 3.5 months of age) screened retrospectively and prospectively for thyroid autoantibodies to identify the age at seroconversion. First-appearing autoantibody was related to sex, HLA genotype, family history of AITD, and subsequent thyroid dysfunction and disease. RESULTS: The youngest appearance of TPOAb and TgAb was 10 and 15 months of age, respectively. Girls had higher incidence rates of both autoantibodies. Family history of AITD was associated with a higher risk of TPOAb hazard ratio [HR] 1.90, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.17, 3.08; and TgAb HR 2.55, 95% CI 1.91, 3.41. The risk of progressing to hypo- or hyperthyroidism was not different between TgAb and TPOAb, but children with both autoantibodies appearing at the same visit had a higher risk compared to TPOAb appearing first (HR 6.34, 95% CI 2.72, 14.76). MAIN CONCLUSION: Thyroid autoantibodies may appear during the first years of life, especially in girls, and in children with a family history of AITD. Simultaneous appearance of both autoantibodies increases the risk for hypo- or hyperthyroidism.

The Influence of Pubertal Development on Autoantibody Appearance and Progression to Type 1 Diabetes in the TEDDY Study.

Context: The 2 peaks of type 1 diabetes incidence occur during early childhood and puberty. Objective: We sought to better understand the relationship between puberty, islet autoimmunity, and type 1 diabetes. Methods: The relationships between puberty, islet autoimmunity, and progression to type 1 diabetes were investigated prospectively in children followed in The Environmental Determinants of Diabetes in the Young (TEDDY) study. Onset of puberty was determined by subject self-assessment of Tanner stages. Associations between speed of pubertal progression, pubertal growth, weight gain, homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), islet autoimmunity, and progression to type 1 diabetes were assessed. The influence of individual factors was analyzed using Cox proportional hazard ratios. Results: Out of 5677 children who were still in the study at age 8 years, 95% reported at least 1 Tanner Stage score and were included in the study. Children at puberty (Tanner Stage ≥2) had a lower risk (HR 0.65, 95% CI 0.45-0.93; P = .019) for incident autoimmunity than prepubertal children (Tanner Stage 1). An increase of body mass index Z-score was associated with a higher risk (HR 2.88, 95% CI 1.61-5.15; P < .001) of incident insulin autoantibodies. In children with multiple autoantibodies, neither HOMA-IR nor rate of progression to Tanner Stage 4 were associated with progression to type 1 diabetes. Conclusion: Rapid weight gain during puberty is associated with development of islet autoimmunity. Puberty itself had no significant influence on the appearance of autoantibodies or type 1 diabetes. Further studies are needed to better understand the underlying mechanisms.

Consensus guidance for monitoring individuals with islet autoantibody-positive pre-stage 3 type 1 diabetes.

Given the proven benefits of screening to reduce diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) likelihood at the time of stage 3 type 1 diabetes diagnosis, and emerging availability of therapy to delay disease progression, type 1 diabetes screening programmes are being increasingly emphasised. Once broadly implemented, screening initiatives will identify significant numbers of islet autoantibody-positive (IAb+) children and adults who are at risk of (confirmed single IAb+) or living with (multiple IAb+) early-stage (stage 1 and stage 2) type 1 diabetes. These individuals will need monitoring for disease progression; much of this care will happen in non-specialised settings. To inform this monitoring, JDRF in conjunction with international experts and societies developed consensus guidance. Broad advice from this guidance includes the following: (1) partnerships should be fostered between endocrinologists and primary-care providers to care for people who are IAb+; (2) when people who are IAb+ are initially identified there is a need for confirmation using a second sample; (3) single IAb+ individuals are at lower risk of progression than multiple IAb+ individuals; (4) individuals with early-stage type 1 diabetes should have periodic medical monitoring, including regular assessments of glucose levels, regular education about symptoms of diabetes and DKA, and psychosocial support; (5) interested people with stage 2 type 1 diabetes should be offered trial participation or approved therapies; and (6) all health professionals involved in monitoring and care of individuals with type 1 diabetes have a responsibility to provide education. The guidance also emphasises significant unmet needs for further research on early-stage type 1 diabetes to increase the rigour of future recommendations and inform clinical care.

Consensus Guidance for Monitoring Individuals With Islet Autoantibody-Positive Pre-Stage 3 Type 1 Diabetes.

Given the proven benefits of screening to reduce diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) likelihood at the time of stage 3 type 1 diabetes diagnosis, and emerging availability of therapy to delay disease progression, type 1 diabetes screening programs are being increasingly emphasized. Once broadly implemented, screening initiatives will identify significant numbers of islet autoantibody-positive (IAb+) children and adults who are at risk for (confirmed single IAb+) or living with (multiple IAb+) early-stage (stage 1 and stage 2) type 1 diabetes. These individuals will need monitoring for disease progression; much of this care will happen in nonspecialized settings. To inform this monitoring, JDRF, in conjunction with international experts and societies, developed consensus guidance. Broad advice from this guidance includes the following: 1) partnerships should be fostered between endocrinologists and primary care providers to care for people who are IAb+; 2) when people who are IAb+ are initially identified, there is a need for confirmation using a second sample; 3) single IAb+ individuals are at lower risk of progression than multiple IAb+ individuals; 4) individuals with early-stage type 1 diabetes should have periodic medical monitoring, including regular assessments of glucose levels, regular education about symptoms of diabetes and DKA, and psychosocial support; 5) interested people with stage 2 type 1 diabetes should be offered trial participation or approved therapies; and 6) all health professionals involved in monitoring and care of individuals with type 1 diabetes have a responsibility to provide education. The guidance also emphasizes significant unmet needs for further research on early-stage type 1 diabetes to increase the rigor of future recommendations and inform clinical care.

Early Metabolic Endpoints Identify Persistent Treatment Efficacy in Recent-Onset Type 1 Diabetes Immunotherapy Trials.

OBJECTIVE: Mixed-meal tolerance test-stimulated area under the curve (AUC) C-peptide at 12-24 months represents the primary end point for nearly all intervention trials seeking to preserve ß-cell function in recent-onset type 1 diabetes. We hypothesized that participant benefit might be detected earlier and predict outcomes at 12 months posttherapy. Such findings would support shorter trials to establish initial efficacy. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We examined data from six Type 1 Diabetes TrialNet immunotherapy randomized controlled trials in a post hoc analysis and included additional stimulated metabolic indices beyond C-peptide AUC. We partitioned the analysis into successful and unsuccessful trials and analyzed the data both in the aggregate as well as individually for each trial. RESULTS: Among trials meeting their primary end point, we identified a treatment effect at 3 and 6 months when using C-peptide AUC (P = 0.030 and P < 0.001, respectively) as a dynamic measure (i.e., change from baseline). Importantly, no such difference was seen in the unsuccessful trials. The use of C-peptide AUC as a 6-month dynamic measure not only detected treatment efficacy but also suggested long-term C-peptide preservation (R2 for 12-month C-peptide AUC adjusted for age and baseline value was 0.80, P < 0.001), and this finding supported the concept of smaller trial sizes down to 54 participants. CONCLUSIONS: Early dynamic measures can identify a treatment effect among successful immune therapies in type 1 diabetes trials with good long-term prediction and practical sample size over a 6-month period. While external validation of these findings is required, strong rationale and data exist in support of shortening early-phase clinical trials.

Pediatric Endocrine Society Statement on Considerations for Use of Teplizumab (Tzield™) in Clinical Practice.

Teplizumab (TzieldTM, Provention Bio), a monoclonal antibody directed at T-cell marker CD3, is the first medication approved by the FDA to delay progression from stage 2 to stage 3 type 1 diabetes. To date, the overwhelming majority of pediatric endocrinologists do not have experience using immunotherapeutics and seek guidance on the use of teplizumab in clinical practice. To address this need, the Pediatric Endocrine Society (PES) Diabetes Special Interest Group (Diabetes SIG) and Drug and Therapeutics Committee assembled a task force to review clinical trial data and solicit expert recommendations on the approach to teplizumab infusions. We present considerations on all aspects of teplizumab administration, utilizing evidence where possible and providing a spectrum of expert opinions on unknown aspects. We discuss patient selection and prescreening, highlighting the safety and considerations for monitoring and treatment of side effects. We propose a schedule of events, a protocol for administration, and discuss practice management aspects. We advocate for the need for further long-term systematic surveillance studies to continue evaluating the efficacy and safety of teplizumab.

COVID-19 impacts and inequities among underserved communities with diabetes.

Background: People with diabetes have higher COVID-19 morbidity and mortality. These risks are amplified for underserved communities including racial/ethnic minorities and people with lower socioeconomic status. However, limited research has examined COVID-19 outcomes specifically affecting underserved communities with diabetes. Methods: From November 2021 to July 2022, adults with insulin-requiring diabetes at federally qualified health centers in Florida and California (n = 450) completed surveys examining COVID-19 outcomes and demographics. Surveys assessed COVID-19 severity, vaccination uptake, mask-wearing habits, income changes, and healthcare access changes. Surveys also included the full Coronavirus Anxiety Scale (CAS-19). Descriptive statistics were computed for all outcomes. Between-group comparisons for state and race/ethnicity were evaluated via Chi-Squared, Fisher's Exact, Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel, One-Way ANOVA, and t-tests. Logistic regression determined factors associated with COVID-19 vaccination uptake. Data were self-reported and analyzed cross-sectionally. Results: Overall, 29.7 % reported contracting COVID-19; of those, 45.3 % sought care or were hospitalized. Most (81.3 %) received ≥ 1 vaccine. Hispanics had the highest vaccination rate (91.1 %); Non-Hispanic Blacks (NHBs) had the lowest (73.9 %; p =.0281). Hispanics had 4.63x greater vaccination odds than Non-Hispanic Whites ([NHWs]; 95 % CI = [1.81, 11.89]). NHWs least often wore masks (18.8 %; p <.001). Participants reported pandemic-related healthcare changes (62 %) and higher costs of diabetes medications (41 %). Income loss was more frequent in Florida (76 %; p <.001). NHBs most frequently reported "severe" income loss (26.4 %; p =.0124). Loss of health insurance was more common among NHBs (13.3 %; p =.0416) and in Florida (9.7 %; p =.039). COVID-19 anxiety was highest among NHBs and Hispanics (IQR = [0.0, 3.0]; p =.0232) and in Florida (IQR = [0.0, 2.0]; p =.0435). Conclusions: Underserved communities with diabetes had high COVID-19 vaccine uptake but experienced significant COVID-19-related physical, psychosocial, and financial impacts. NHBs and those in Florida had worse outcomes than other racial/ethnic groups and those in California. Further research, interventions, and policy changes are needed to promote health equity for this population.

Confronting Health Misinformation Surrounding COVID-19 Vaccines in the State of Florida.

COVID-19 vaccination is estimated to have averted more than 2.4 million deaths globally. In the United States (U.S.) alone, more than 120,000 deaths and 700,000 hospitalizations are reportedly estimated to have been prevented during the first six months of the vaccine campaign. Despite the overwhelming evidence regarding the safety and efficacy of vaccination, COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy continues to pose a significant threat to public health. Notably, an unexpected source of vaccine misinformation has been the Surgeon General of the State of Florida, Dr. Joseph Ladapo. While both a tenured faculty member of the University of Florida, College of Medicine and the Surgeon General of Florida, Dr. Ladapo has delivered official Florida Department of Health statements regarding COVID-19 vaccines that run contrary to those of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). While tenure is designed to protect those with contrarian views, we believe that the University has an ethical obligation to condemn misleading statements that put public health at risk. Herein, we explore the challenges of managing misinformation disseminated by someone who is simultaneously a tenured professor at a public, state-supported university, and a politically appointed public health official.

Low-Dose Antithymocyte Globulin: A Pragmatic Approach to Treating Stage 2 Type 1 Diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: Low-dose antithymocyte globulin (ATG) (2.5 mg/kg) preserves C-peptide and reduces HbA1c in new-onset stage 3 type 1 diabetes, yet efficacy in delaying progression from stage 2 to stage 3 has not been evaluated. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Children (n = 6) aged 5-14 years with stage 2 type 1 diabetes received off-label, low-dose ATG. HbA1c, C-peptide, continuous glucose monitoring, insulin requirements, and side effects were followed for 18-48 months. RESULTS: Three subjects (50%) remained diabetes free after 1.5, 3, and 4 years of follow-up, while three developed stage 3 within 1-2 months after therapy. Eighteen months posttreatment, even disease progressors demonstrated near-normal HbA1c (5.1% [32 mmol/mol], 5.6% [38 mmol/mol], and 5.3% [34 mmol/mol]), time in range (93%, 88%, and 98%), low insulin requirements (0.17, 0.18, and 0.34 units/kg/day), and robust C-peptide 90 min after mixed meal (1.3 ng/dL, 2.3 ng/dL, and 1.4 ng/dL). CONCLUSIONS: These observations support additional prospective studies evaluating ATG in stage 2 type 1 diabetes.

Sociodemographic factors associated with major depressive episodes and suicidal ideation among emerging adults with diabetes in the U.S.

Background: Research focused on disparities related to mental health comorbidities, especially among emerging adults with diabetes, is limited. Identifying associated factors of disparities could inform policy decisions to make diabetes-related interdisciplinary care more accessible for vulnerable groups. Method: Using data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (2015-2019), we examined disparities in presence of major depressive episode (MDE) and suicidal ideation among emerging adults with diabetes. Survey design-adjusted bivariate and multivariable logistic regression models were used for statistical analyses. Results: The study included 1,125 emerging adults (18-25 years old), with a history of type 1 diabetes (T1D) or type 2 diabetes (T2D). After controlling for sociodemographic and health-related characteristics, we found lower odds of having past-year major MDE for non-Hispanic Black (AOR, 0.42, p=0.032) compared to their non-Hispanic White counterparts. Females were 3.02 times more likely to have past-year MDE than males (AOR, 3.02, p=0.004). The odds of having past-year MDE were 1.96 times higher among individuals who identified as LGB (lesbian, gay, bisexual) (AOR, 1.96, P=0.038). There were no statistically significant disparities in suicidal ideation related to race/ethnicity, sex, education, and family income. However, individuals who identified as LGB had significantly higher likelihood of suicidal ideation than their heterosexual counterparts (AOR, 2.47, P=0.004). Conclusion: Significant disparities related to MDE and suicidal ideation exist based on race/ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation. Integration of a mental health professional into the multidisciplinary diabetes care team is critical for effective management of comorbid mental health conditions in younger patients with diabetes.

The role of health system penetration rate in estimating the prevalence of type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents using electronic health records.

OBJECTIVE: Having sufficient population coverage from the electronic health records (EHRs)-connected health system is essential for building a comprehensive EHR-based diabetes surveillance system. This study aimed to establish an EHR-based type 1 diabetes (T1D) surveillance system for children and adolescents across racial and ethnic groups by identifying the minimum population coverage from EHR-connected health systems to accurately estimate T1D prevalence. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a retrospective, cross-sectional analysis involving children and adolescents <20 years old identified from the OneFlorida+ Clinical Research Network (2018-2020). T1D cases were identified using a previously validated computable phenotyping algorithm. The T1D prevalence for each ZIP Code Tabulation Area (ZCTA, 5 digits), defined as the number of T1D cases divided by the total number of residents in the corresponding ZCTA, was calculated. Population coverage for each ZCTA was measured using observed health system penetration rates (HSPR), which was calculated as the ratio of residents in the corresponding ZTCA and captured by OneFlorida+ to the overall population in the same ZCTA reported by the Census. We used a recursive partitioning algorithm to identify the minimum required observed HSPR to estimate T1D prevalence and compare our estimate with the reported T1D prevalence from the SEARCH study. RESULTS: Observed HSPRs of 55%, 55%, and 60% were identified as the minimum thresholds for the non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, and Hispanic populations. The estimated T1D prevalence for non-Hispanic White and non-Hispanic Black were 2.87 and 2.29 per 1000 youth, which are comparable to the reference study's estimation. The estimated prevalence of T1D for Hispanics (2.76 per 1000 youth) was higher than the reference study's estimation (1.48-1.64 per 1000 youth). The standardized T1D prevalence in the overall Florida population was 2.81 per 1000 youth in 2019. CONCLUSION: Our study provides a method to estimate T1D prevalence in children and adolescents using EHRs and reports the estimated HSPRs and prevalence of T1D for different race and ethnicity groups to facilitate EHR-based diabetes surveillance.

Hydroxychloroquine in Stage 1 Type 1 Diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: Innate immune responses may be involved in the earliest phases of type 1 diabetes (T1D). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: To test whether blocking innate immaune cells modulated progression of the disease, we randomly assigned 273 individuals with stage 1 T1D to treatment with hydroxychloroquine (n = 183; 5 mg/kg per day to a maximum of 400 mg) or placebo (n = 90) and assessed whether hydroxychloroquine treatment delayed or prevented progression to stage 2 T1D (i.e., two or more islet autoantibodies with abnormal glucose tolerance). RESULTS: After a median follow-up of 23.3 months, the trial was stopped prematurely by the data safety monitoring board because of futility. There were no safety concerns in the hydroxychloroquine arm, including in annual ophthalmologic examinations. Preplanned secondary analyses showed a transient decrease in the glucose average area under the curve to oral glucose in the hydroxychloroquine-treated arm at month 6 and reduced titers of anti-GAD and anti-insulin autoantibodies and acquisition of positive autoantibodies in the hydroxychloroquine arm (P = 0.032). CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that hydroxychloroquine does not delay progression to stage 2 T1D in individuals with stage 1 disease. Drug treatment reduces the acquisition of additional autoantibodies and the titers of autoantibodies to GAD and insulin.

Recruiting historically under-represented individuals into Project ECHO Diabetes: using barrier analysis to understand disparities in clinical research in the USA.

OBJECTIVES: Individuals under-recruited in diabetes research studies include those not seen at endocrinology centres and those from rural, low socioeconomic and/or under-represented racial/ethnic groups. The purpose of this descriptive analysis is to detail recruitment and retention efforts of Project ECHO Diabetes clinical sites affiliated with Stanford University and University of Florida. DESIGN: Prospective collection of participant engagement and qualitative analysis of barriers and facilitators of research engagement within Project ECHO Diabetes, a virtual tele-education programme for healthcare providers in the management of individuals with insulin-requiring diabetes. SETTING: Data were collected at the patient level, provider level and clinic level between 1 May 2021 and 31 July 2022. PARTICIPANTS: Participants and study personnel were recruited from 33 Project ECHO Diabetes sites in California and Florida. OUTCOMES: We report study completion rates for participants recruited into 33 Project ECHO Diabetes sites. Using barrier analysis, a methodology designed for the real-time assessment of interventions and system processes to identify barriers and facilitators, study personnel identified significant barriers to recruitment and retention and mapped them to actionable solutions. RESULTS: In total, 872 participants (California n=495, Florida n=377) were recruited with differing recruitment rates by site (California=52.7%, Florida=21.5%). Barrier analysis identified lack of trust, unreliable contact information, communication issues and institutional review board (IRB) requirements as key recruitment barriers. Culturally congruent staff, community health centre (CHC) support, adequate funding and consent process flexibility were solutions to address recruitment challenges. Barriers to retention were inconsistent postal access, haemoglobin A1c kit collection challenges, COVID-19 pandemic and broadband/connectivity issues. Additional funding supporting research staff and analogue communication methods were identified as solutions address barriers to retention. CONCLUSIONS: Funded partnerships with CHCs, trusted by their local communities, were key in our recruitment and retention strategies. IRB consent process flexibility reduced barriers to recruitment. Recruiting historically under-represented populations is feasible with funding aimed to address structural barriers to research participation.

Dietary Intake and Body Mass Index Influence the Risk of Islet Autoimmunity in Genetically At-Risk Children: A Mediation Analysis Using the TEDDY Cohort.

Background/Objective: Growth and obesity have been associated with increased risk of islet autoimmunity (IA) and progression to type 1 diabetes. We aimed to estimate the effect of energy-yielding macronutrient intake on the development of IA through BMI. Research Design and Methods: Genetically at-risk children (n = 5,084) in Finland, Germany, Sweden, and the USA, who were autoantibody negative at 2 years of age, were followed to the age of 8 years, with anthropometric measurements and 3-day food records collected biannually. Of these, 495 (9.7%) children developed IA. Mediation analysis for time-varying covariates (BMI z-score) and exposure (energy intake) was conducted. Cox proportional hazard method was used in sensitivity analysis. Results: We found an indirect effect of total energy intake (estimates: indirect effect 0.13 [0.05, 0.21]) and energy from protein (estimates: indirect effect 0.06 [0.02, 0.11]), fat (estimates: indirect effect 0.03 [0.01, 0.05]), and carbohydrates (estimates: indirect effect 0.02 [0.00, 0.04]) (kcal/day) on the development of IA. A direct effect was found for protein, expressed both as kcal/day (estimates: direct effect 1.09 [0.35, 1.56]) and energy percentage (estimates: direct effect 72.8 [3.0, 98.0]) and the development of GAD autoantibodies (GADA). In the sensitivity analysis, energy from protein (kcal/day) was associated with increased risk for GADA, hazard ratio 1.24 (95% CI: 1.09, 1.53), p = 0.042. Conclusions: This study confirms that higher total energy intake is associated with higher BMI, which leads to higher risk of the development of IA. A diet with larger proportion of energy from protein has a direct effect on the development of GADA.

The Promising Success of Project Extension for Community Healthcare Outcomes (ECHO) Diabetes: Case Series.

BACKGROUND: In the United States, there are over 37 million people with diabetes but only 8000 endocrinologists. Therefore, many people with diabetes receive care exclusively from primary care providers (PCPs). To democratize knowledge regarding insulin-requiring diabetes through tele-education, Stanford University and the University of Florida developed Project Extension for Community Healthcare Outcomes (ECHO) Diabetes. OBJECTIVE: ECHO Diabetes uses a Hub and Spoke model connecting specialists (the "Hub") with PCPs (the "Spokes"). One-hour, weekly sessions include Hub diabetes didactic presentations and Spoke deidentified case presentations. Lessons learned during these sessions target provider knowledge and confidence surrounding diabetes management and patient care. METHODS: Spokes were asked to provide short descriptions of people with diabetes whose diabetes management improved directly or indirectly from their providers' participation or their involvement with a Diabetes Support Coach (DSC). We provide a case series to describe individuals and outcomes. Because this study was not a randomized controlled trial and was a prospective observation of patients with the intervention delivered to providers, the trial is not registered in a public trials registry. RESULTS: A case series of 11 people with diabetes was compiled from 10 PCPs and 1 DSC from California and Florida between 2021 and 2022. The principal impact of ECHO Diabetes is the education amplified from PCPs and DSCs to people with diabetes. In all cases, people with diabetes reported increased engagement and improved diabetes management. Several cases reflected increased access to diabetes technology, improvement in glycemic outcomes, and positive trends in mental health measures. CONCLUSIONS: This case series elucidates the potential value of the ECHO Diabetes program to people with diabetes who receive their diabetes care from PCPs. Those matched with a DSC saw clinically significant improvements in hemoglobin A1c and mental health outcomes.

Responders to low-dose ATG induce CD4+ T cell exhaustion in type 1 diabetes.

BACKGROUNDLow-dose anti-thymocyte globulin (ATG) transiently preserves C-peptide and lowers HbA1c in individuals with recent-onset type 1 diabetes (T1D); however, the mechanisms of action and features of the response remain unclear. Here, we characterized the post hoc immunological outcomes of ATG administration and their potential use as biomarkers of metabolic response to therapy (i.e., improved preservation of endogenous insulin production).METHODSWe assessed gene and protein expression, targeted gene methylation, and cytokine concentrations in peripheral blood following treatment with ATG (n = 29), ATG plus granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (ATG/G-CSF, n = 28), or placebo (n = 31).RESULTSTreatment with low-dose ATG preserved regulatory T cells (Tregs), as measured by stable methylation of FOXP3 Treg-specific demethylation region (TSDR) and increased proportions of CD4+FOXP3+ Tregs (P < 0.001) identified by flow cytometry. While treatment effects were consistent across participants, not all maintained C-peptide. Responders exhibited a transient rise in IL-6, IP-10, and TNF-α (P < 0.05 for all) 2 weeks after treatment and a durable CD4+ exhaustion phenotype (increased PD-1+KLRG1+CD57- on CD4+ T cells [P = 0.011] and PD1+CD4+ Temra MFI [P < 0.001] at 12 weeks, following ATG and ATG/G-CSF, respectively). ATG nonresponders displayed higher proportions of senescent T cells (at baseline and after treatment) and increased methylation of EOMES (i.e., less expression of this exhaustion marker).CONCLUSIONAltogether in these exploratory analyses, Th1 inflammation-associated serum and CD4+ exhaustion transcript and cellular phenotyping profiles may be useful for identifying signatures of clinical response to ATG in T1D.TRIAL REGISTRATIONClinicalTrials.gov NCT02215200.FUNDINGThe Leona M. and Harry B. Helmsley Charitable Trust (2019PG-T1D011), the NIH (R01 DK106191 Supplement, K08 DK128628), NIH TrialNet (U01 DK085461), and the NIH NIAID (P01 AI042288).

Human immune phenotyping reveals accelerated aging in type 1 diabetes.

The proportions and phenotypes of immune cell subsets in peripheral blood undergo continual and dramatic remodeling throughout the human life span, which complicates efforts to identify disease-associated immune signatures in type 1 diabetes (T1D). We conducted cross-sectional flow cytometric immune profiling on peripheral blood from 826 individuals (stage 3 T1D, their first-degree relatives, those with ≥2 islet autoantibodies, and autoantibody-negative unaffected controls). We constructed an immune age predictive model in unaffected participants and observed accelerated immune aging in T1D. We used generalized additive models for location, shape, and scale to obtain age-corrected data for flow cytometry and complete blood count readouts, which can be visualized in our interactive portal (ImmScape); 46 parameters were significantly associated with age only, 25 with T1D only, and 23 with both age and T1D. Phenotypes associated with accelerated immunological aging in T1D included increased CXCR3+ and programmed cell death 1-positive (PD-1+) frequencies in naive and memory T cell subsets, despite reduced PD-1 expression levels on memory T cells. Phenotypes associated with T1D after age correction were predictive of T1D status. Our findings demonstrate advanced immune aging in T1D and highlight disease-associated phenotypes for biomarker monitoring and therapeutic interventions.