In-vivo high-frequency quantitative ultrasound-derived parameters of the anterior sclera correlated with level of myopia and presence of staphyloma.

BACKGROUND: A high-frequency point-of-care (POC) ultrasound instrument was used to evaluate the microstructural and biomechanical properties of the anterior sclera in vivo using parameters computed from quantitative ultrasound (QUS) methods. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, both eyes of 85 enrolled patients were scanned with the POC instrument and ultrasound data were processed to obtain QUS parameters. Pearson correlation and multi-linear regression were used to identify relationships between QUS parameters and refractive error (RE) or axial length. After categorising eyes based on RE, binary support vector machine (SVM) classifiers were trained using the QUS or ophthalmic parameters (anterior chamber depth, central corneal thickness, corneal power, and intraocular pressure) to classify each eye. Classifier performance was evaluated by computing the area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve (AUC). RESULTS: Individual QUS parameters correlated with RE and axial length (p < 0.05). Multi-linear regression revealed significant correlation between the set of QUS parameters and both RE (R = 0.49, p < 0.001) and axial length (R = 0.46, p = 0.001). Classifiers trained with QUS parameters achieved higher AUC (𝑝 = 0.06) for identifying myopic eyes (AUC = 0.71) compared to classifiers trained with ophthalmic parameters (AUC = 0.63). QUS-based classifiers attained the highest AUC when identifying highly myopic eyes (AUC = 0.77). CONCLUSIONS: QUS parameters correlate with progressing myopia and may be indicative of myopia-induced microstructural and biomechanical changes in the anterior sclera. These methods may provide critical clinical information complementary to standard ophthalmic measurements for predicting myopia progression and risk assessment for posterior staphyloma formation.

Comparison of manual and artificial intelligence-automated choroidal thickness segmentation of optical coherence tomography imaging in myopic adults.

BACKGROUND: Myopia affects 1.4 billion individuals worldwide. Notably, there is increasing evidence that choroidal thickness plays an important role in myopia and risk of developing myopia-related conditions. With the advancements in artificial intelligence (AI), choroidal thickness segmentation can now be automated, offering inherent advantages such as better repeatability, reduced grader variability, and less reliance for manpower. Hence, we aimed to evaluate the agreement between AI-automated and manual segmented measurements of subfoveal choroidal thickness (SFCT) using two swept-source optical coherence tomography (OCT) systems. METHODS: Subjects aged ≥ 16 years, with myopia of ≥ 0.50 diopters in both eyes, were recruited from the Prospective Myopia Cohort Study in Singapore (PROMYSE). OCT scans were acquired using Triton DRI-OCT and PLEX Elite 9000. OCT images were segmented both automatically with an established SA-Net architecture and manually using a standard technique with adjudication by two independent graders. SFCT was subsequently determined based on the segmentation. The Bland-Altman plot and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) were used to evaluate the agreement. RESULTS: A total of 229 subjects (456 eyes) with mean [± standard deviation (SD)] age of 34.1 (10.4) years were included. The overall SFCT (mean ± SD) based on manual segmentation was 216.9 ± 82.7 µm with Triton DRI-OCT and 239.3 ± 84.3 µm with PLEX Elite 9000. ICC values demonstrated excellent agreement between AI-automated and manual segmented SFCT measurements (PLEX Elite 9000: ICC = 0.937, 95% CI: 0.922 to 0.949, P < 0.001; Triton DRI-OCT: ICC = 0.887, 95% CI: 0.608 to 0.950, P < 0.001). For PLEX Elite 9000, manual segmented measurements were generally thicker when compared to AI-automated segmented measurements, with a fixed bias of 6.3 µm (95% CI: 3.8 to 8.9, P < 0.001) and proportional bias of 0.120 (P < 0.001). On the other hand, manual segmented measurements were comparatively thinner than AI-automated segmented measurements for Triton DRI-OCT, with a fixed bias of - 26.7 µm (95% CI: - 29.7 to - 23.7, P < 0.001) and proportional bias of - 0.090 (P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: We observed an excellent agreement in choroidal segmentation measurements when comparing manual with AI-automated techniques, using images from two SS-OCT systems. Given its edge over manual segmentation, automated segmentation may potentially emerge as the primary method of choroidal thickness measurement in the future.

The Spectrum of Relentless Placoid and Acute Posterior Multifocal Placoid Pigment Epitheliopathy (APMPPE): Multimodal Imaging Analysis.

PURPOSE: To showcase the spectrum between APMPPE and relentless placoid utilizing ultra-widefield imaging findings of a case of acute posterior multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy (APMPPE) progressing to relentless placoid chorioretinitis (RPC). METHODS: A 23-year-old Caucasian female presented with worsening vision in both eyes. Clinical examination and multimodal imaging modalities including fundus photos, fundus autofluorescence, fluorescein angiography (FA), indocyanine green angiography (ICGA) and spectral-domain optical coherence tomography and angiography were utilized to diagnose APMPPE and clinically follow the patient. RESULTS: Clinical examination of the patient initially revealed posterior lesions consistent with APMPPE but subsequent multimodal images including ultra-widefield FA and ICGA revealed newer, more peripheral lesions more typical of RPC. CONCLUSION: When compared to standard multimodal imaging, ultra-widefield imaging is an effective tool to delineate nuances between APMPPE and RPC through identification of peripheral lesions, which may be of clinical importance when determining management and therapeutics for patients.

Pathologic myopia in highly myopic patients with high axial anisomyopia.

PURPOSE: To determine prevalence of anisomyopia (axial length (AL) difference ≥2.5 mm) among high myopes ((HMs), defined by spherical equivalent of ≤6.0 diopters or AL ≥ 26.5 mm). To characterise the shorter anisomyopic eye (SAE) and evaluate if pathologic myopia (PM) in the longer anisomyopic eye (LAE) was associated with increased risk of PM in the SAE. METHODS: 1168 HMs were recruited from Singapore National Eye Centre clinic for this cross-sectional study. Biometry, fundus photography and swept-source optical coherence tomography were performed. Patients with high axial anisomyopia were identified. Structural characteristics and presence of PM were described. Stepwise multivariate regression explored associations between PM in the LAE and pathology in the SAE, controlling for confounding variables. RESULTS: Prevalence of anisomyopia was 15.8% (184 of 1168 patients). Anisomyopic patients (age 65.8±13.5 years) had mean AL of 30.6±2.0 mm and 26.2±2.3 mm in the LAE and SAE, respectively. 52.7% of SAEs had AL < 26.5 mm. Prevalence of myopic macular degeneration, macula-involving posterior staphyloma (PS), myopic traction maculopathy (MTM) and myopic choroidal neovascularisation (mCNV) in the SAE was 52.2%, 36.5%, 13.0% and 8.2%, respectively. Macular hole in the LAE was associated with increased risk of MTM in the SAE (OR=4.88, p=0.01). mCNV in the LAE was associated with mCNV in the SAE (OR=3.57, p=0.02). PS in the LAE was associated with PS in the SAE (OR=4.03, p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Even when controlled for AL, PM complications in the LAE predict similar PM complications in the SAE. Patients with high axial anisometropia with PM in the LAE should be monitored carefully for complications in the SAE.

ULTRA-WIDEFIELD IMAGING DETECTION RATE IN IDENTIFYING PERIPHERAL RETINAL TEARS IN SINGLE VERSUS MONTAGE OF PERIPHERAL STEERING.

PURPOSE: To compare the detection rate of orthogonal, directed peripheral steering, and automontaged images with ultra-widefield imaging and the factors influencing the ability to identify retinal breaks. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. METHODS: Three hundred and seventy-six treatment-naive eyes (349 patients) that underwent laser retinopexy for retinal breaks between 2015 and 2021 were included. Pretreatment ultra-widefield orthogonal, peripheral steering, and automontage were cross-referenced to scleral-depressed examination to determine whether images successfully visualized all retinal breaks. Total relative retinal area (RRA) visualized was divided by its optic disk area (pixels) to calculate relative retinal area. Potential associations were assessed by linear regression analysis. RESULTS: One hundred and sixty two eyes (154 patients) met inclusion criteria. Orthogonal, peripheral steering, and automontage images showed detection rates of 47.5%, 90.7%, and 80.0%, respectively. Relative retinal area increased from orthogonal versus montage by 34.7% ± 26.5% (mean ± SD), which increased the detection rate by 90.8% ( P = 0.006). In linear probability models, vertical meridian tears decreased probability of identification in orthogonal, peripheral steering, and automontage by -26.6%, -86.2%, and -68.7%, respectively ( P < 0.001), and horizontal meridian tears increased the probability by 62.2%, 92.9%, and 85.5%, respectively, ( P < 0.001). Tears posterior to the equator in orthogonal images increased the probability (91.4%, P < 0.001). Artifacts such as lids/lashes, reflection, and face guard decreased the probability in directed peripheral steering by -28.6%, -50.0%, and -66.7%, respectively, ( P = 0.020, P = 0.049, and P = 0.016). CONCLUSION: Using directed peripheral steering and automontage increases RRA and detection rate of identifying peripheral retinal breaks. Tears in horizontal meridians or posterior to the equator increase the probability of identification. Common ultra-widefield imaging artifacts can significantly limit the probability of identifying retinal tears.

Ultrasound Assessment of Gaze-induced Posterior Eyewall Deformation in Highly Myopic Eyes.

Purpose: To establish a quantitative metric of posterior eyewall deformability in different directions of gaze in highly myopic eyes with and without posterior staphyloma. Methods: A prospective study was performed on 53 highly myopic patients (106 eyes). Ultrasound scans were acquired in primary, up, downward, nasal, and temporal gazes. A validated intensity-based segmentation algorithm was used to quantify the posterior eyewall geometry on digitalized B-scan images. Posterior eyewall local curvature (K) and distance (L) to the transducer were calculated. The associations between directions of gaze, axial length (AL), and presence of staphyloma with the K and L parameters were assessed. Results: A total of 53 participants (106 eyes) were studied. Multivariate regression analysis demonstrated that, after accounting for longer AL, and presence of staphyloma, eccentric gaze was often independently associated with various K and L parameters. Specifically, downward gaze was associated with increased posterior eyewall concavity as reflected in the maximum of K (KMax) (ß = 0.050, P < 0.001) and absolute value of KMax (ß = 0.041, P = 0.011). Both downward gaze and upgaze were independently associated with increase in the derivative of absolute KMax (which is consistent with more apparent, steeper staphyloma ridges), local KMax (which detects KMax at smaller intervals), and Kstd (which represents likelihood of staphyloma presence) and decrease in maximum of L (which represents movement of the staphyloma apex) with all P < 0.05. The ß coefficients for downward gaze were consistently greater in magnitude compared with those in upgaze. After accounting for AL and presence of staphyloma, horizontal gazes were independently associated only with decrease in the standard deviation of L (which also represents likelihood of staphyloma presence) and maximum of L. Conclusions: Downward gaze results in a significant increase in posterior eyewall concavity in highly myopic eyes after accounting for AL and staphyloma presence. In comparison with downward gaze, upgaze resulted in a lower magnitude, but significant changes in staphyloma ridge steepness and the likelihood of staphyloma presence. Horizontal gazes seemed to be associated with less posterior eyewall geometric parameters. Studies are required to further assess the association between downward gaze during near work on posterior eyewall concavity and possible effects on myopia development and progression.

How Myopia and Glaucoma Influence the Biomechanical Susceptibility of the Optic Nerve Head.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to assess optic nerve head (ONH) deformations following acute intraocular pressure (IOP) elevations and horizontal eye movements in control eyes, highly myopic (HM) eyes, HM eyes with glaucoma (HMG), and eyes with pathologic myopia (PM) alone or PM with staphyloma (PM + S). Methods: We studied 282 eyes, comprising of 99 controls (between +2.75 and -2.75 diopters), 51 HM (< -5 diopters), 35 HMG, 21 PM, and 75 PM + S eyes. For each eye, we imaged the ONH using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (OCT) under the following conditions: (1) primary gaze, (2) 20 degrees adduction, (3) 20 degrees abduction, and (4) primary gaze with acute IOP elevation (to ∼35 mm Hg) achieved through ophthalmodynamometry. We then computed IOP- and gaze-induced ONH displacements and effective strains. Effective strains were compared across groups. Results: Under IOP elevation, we found that HM eyes exhibited significantly lower strains (3.9 ± 2.4%) than PM eyes (6.9 ± 5.0%, P < 0.001), HMG eyes (4.7 ± 1.8%, P = 0.04), and PM + S eyes (7.0 ± 5.2%, P < 0.001). Under adduction, we found that HM eyes exhibited significantly lower strains (4.8% ± 2.7%) than PM + S eyes (6.0 ± 3.1%, P = 0.02). We also found that eyes with higher axial length were associated with higher strains. Conclusions: Our study revealed that eyes with HMG experienced significantly greater strains under IOP compared to eyes with HM. Furthermore, eyes with PM + S had the highest strains on the ONH of all groups.

Posterior scleral birefringence measured by triple-input polarization-sensitive imaging as a biomarker of myopia progression.

In myopic eyes, pathological remodelling of collagen in the posterior sclera has mostly been observed ex vivo. Here we report the development of triple-input polarization-sensitive optical coherence tomography (OCT) for measuring posterior scleral birefringence. In guinea pigs and humans, the technique offers superior imaging sensitivities and accuracies than dual-input polarization-sensitive OCT. In 8-week-long studies with young guinea pigs, scleral birefringence was positively correlated with spherical equivalent refractive errors and predicted the onset of myopia. In a cross-sectional study involving adult individuals, scleral birefringence was associated with myopia status and negatively correlated with refractive errors. Triple-input polarization-sensitive OCT may help establish posterior scleral birefringence as a non-invasive biomarker for assessing the progression of myopia.

Identifying Content for an Item Bank to Measure the Quality-of-Life Impact of Myopia Refractive Interventions.

Purpose: To report on the content generation and item refinement phases for a myopia refractive intervention-specific quality-of-life (QoL) item bank that will be operationalized using computerized adaptive testing. Methods: Myopia refractive intervention-specific QoL domains and items were generated from (1) a literature search of existing refractive-intervention QoL questionnaires; (2) semistructured interviews with myopic patients corrected using spectacles, contact lenses and/or refractive surgery (n = 32); (3) and myopia experts (n = 9) recruited from the Singapore National Eye Centre. After a thematic analysis, items were systematically refined and tested using cognitive interviews with 24 additional patients with corrected myopia. Results: Of the 32 participants with myopia interviewed (mean ± standard deviation age, 35.6 ± 9.0 years; 71.9% female; 78.1% Chinese), 12 (37.5%) wore spectacles, 7 (21.9%) used contact lenses, and 20 (62.5%) had undergone laser refractive surgery. Initially, 912 items within 7 independent QoL domains were identified. After refinement, 204 items were retained, including those relating to mobility challenges and work-related difficulties that are not well-represented in current refractive intervention-specific questionnaires. Conclusions: Through a rigorous item generation and selection process, we have developed a 204-item and 7-domain myopia refractive intervention-specific item bank that will now undergo rigorous psychometric testing to generate item calibrations for the validation of a novel computerized adaptive testing instrument designed for use in research and routine clinical practice. Translational Relevance: Once psychometrically validated and operationalized using computerized adaptive testing, this myopia refractive intervention-specific instrument will enable researchers and clinicians to quickly and comprehensively assess the impact of myopic refractive interventions across seven QoL domains.

High-frequency ultrasound point-of-care device to quantify myopia-induced microstructural changes in the anterior sclera.

PURPOSE: To develop a point-of-care (POC) device using high-frequency ultrasound (US) for evaluating microstructural changes in the anterior sclera associated with myopia. METHODS: The proposed POC device must satisfy four primary requirements for effective clinical use: the measurement component is handheld; the software must be simple and provide real-time feedback; patient safety and health data security requirements set forth by relevant governing bodies must be satisfied and the measurement data must have sufficient signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and repeatability. Radiofrequency (RF) echo data acquired by the POC device will be processed using our quantitative US methods to characterise tissue microstructure and biomechanical properties. RESULTS: All stated requirements have been met in the developed POC device. The high-frequency transducer is housed in a custom, 3D-printed, pen-like holder that allows for easy measurements of the anterior sclera. Custom software provides a simple interface for data acquisition, real-time data display and secure data storage. Exposimetry measurements of the US pressure field indicate device compliance with United States Food and Drug Administration limits for ophthalmic US. In vivo measurements on a volunteer suggest the RF data SNR and acquisition consistency are suitable for quantitative analysis. CONCLUSIONS: A fully functioning POC device using high-frequency US has been created for evaluating the microstructure of the anterior sclera. Planned studies using the POC device to scan the eyes of myopia patients will help clarify how the anterior sclera microstructure may be affected by myopia. If effective, this portable, inexpensive and user-friendly system could be an important part of routine eye examinations.

Quadrant Asymmetry in Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography Metrics in Ischemic Versus Non-Ischemic Central Retinal Vein Occlusion Eyes.

Purpose: To determine whether quadrant asymmetry (QA) of optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) metrics differs between non-ischemic versus ischemic central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO). Methods: Fifty-eight eyes (21 non-ischemic, 10 ischemic CRVO, and 27 contralateral control eyes) underwent 3 × 3 mm spectral-domain OCTA scans with quantification of the superficial retinal layer vessel length density (VLD) and perfusion density (PD). QA, defined as the maximum-minus-minimum value among four parafoveal Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) quadrants, was compared by linear regression including fixed effects for each eye. Results: Mean age was 73.6 ± 11.4 (range 39-88), 73.8 ± 12.4 (range 39-91) and 77.2 ± 9.83, (range 60-88); and QA was 3.46 ± 1.76, 3.14 ± 1.57, and 4.88 ± 2.42 for VLD and 0.072 ± 0.038, 0.062 ± 0.036, and 0.11 ± 0.056 for PD for control, non-ischemic, and ischemic, respectively. QA was significantly higher in ischemic (0.109 ± 0.056) than non-ischemic CRVO eyes (0.062 ± 0.036; P = 0.02) and control eyes for PD (0.072 ± 0.038; P = 0.03). QA was also greater in ischemic (4.875 ± 2.418) than non-ischemic CRVO (3.141 ± 1.572) for VLD (P = 0.04). In terms of identifying which particular quadrant is most affected by ischemia, multivariate regression analysis comparing intra-quadrant effect on the presence of ischemia versus non-ischemia showed no quadrant was significantly affected (P > 0.05 for all quadrants). Conclusions: Ischemic CRVO increases intraeye QA of OCTA metrics when compared to non-ischemic CRVO and control eyes. No specific ETDRS quadrant appears to be more affected. Translational Relevance: This work uses an intraeye method to delineate between ischemic and non-ischemic CRVO by OCTA imaging, overcoming inter-eye variables encountered in clinical care.

Applications of Genomics and Transcriptomics in Precision Medicine for Myopia Control or Prevention.

Myopia is a globally emerging concern accompanied by multiple medical and socio-economic burdens with no well-established causal treatment to control thus far. The study of the genomics and transcriptomics of myopia treatment is crucial to delineate disease pathways and provide valuable insights for the design of precise and effective therapeutics. A strong understanding of altered biochemical pathways and underlying pathogenesis leading to myopia may facilitate early diagnosis and treatment of myopia, ultimately leading to the development of more effective preventive and therapeutic measures. In this review, we summarize current data about the genomics and transcriptomics of myopia in human and animal models. We also discuss the potential applicability of these findings to precision medicine for myopia treatment.

Deep learning system to predict the 5-year risk of high myopia using fundus imaging in children.

Our study aims to identify children at risk of developing high myopia for timely assessment and intervention, preventing myopia progression and complications in adulthood through the development of a deep learning system (DLS). Using a school-based cohort in Singapore comprising of 998 children (aged 6-12 years old), we train and perform primary validation of the DLS using 7456 baseline fundus images of 1878 eyes; with external validation using an independent test dataset of 821 baseline fundus images of 189 eyes together with clinical data (age, gender, race, parental myopia, and baseline spherical equivalent (SE)). We derive three distinct algorithms - image, clinical and mix (image + clinical) models to predict high myopia development (SE ≤ -6.00 diopter) during teenage years (5 years later, age 11-17). Model performance is evaluated using area under the receiver operating curve (AUC). Our image models (Primary dataset AUC 0.93-0.95; Test dataset 0.91-0.93), clinical models (Primary dataset AUC 0.90-0.97; Test dataset 0.93-0.94) and mixed (image + clinical) models (Primary dataset AUC 0.97; Test dataset 0.97-0.98) achieve clinically acceptable performance. The addition of 1 year SE progression variable has minimal impact on the DLS performance (clinical model AUC 0.98 versus 0.97 in primary dataset, 0.97 versus 0.94 in test dataset; mixed model AUC 0.99 versus 0.97 in primary dataset, 0.95 versus 0.98 in test dataset). Thus, our DLS allows prediction of the development of high myopia by teenage years amongst school-going children. This has potential utility as a clinical-decision support tool to identify "at-risk" children for early intervention.

Scleral growth stunting via sub-Tenon injection of cross-linking solutions in live rabbits.

BACKGROUND: Scleral cross-linking is a potential method to inhibit axial elongation of the eye, preventing the progression of pathological myopia. Formaldehyde releasers, which are common preservatives found in cosmetics and ophthalmic solutions, have been shown to be not only effective in cross-linking corneal collagen in vitro and in vivo, but also have minimal toxicity effects on the eye. The present study aims to evaluate the efficacy of scleral cross-linking using sodium hydroxymethylglycinate (SMG) to inhibit eye growth using an in vivo rabbit model. METHODS: A cross-linking solution containing 40 mM SMG was delivered to the sub-Tenon's space behind the equator. The application regimen included a two-quadrant injection performed five times over 2 weeks on New Zealand White rabbits (n=5, group 1), and one-time injection followed for up to 5 days on Dutch-Belted rabbits (n=6, group 2). Group 1 was monitored serially for axial length changes using B-scan ultrasound for 5-6 weeks. Group 2 was injected with a higher viscosity solution formulation. Both groups were evaluated for thermal denaturation temperature changes of the sclera postmortem. RESULTS: Axial growth was limited by 10%-20% following SMG treatment as compared with the untreated eye. Thermal denaturation analysis showed increased heat resistance of the treated eyes in the areas of injection. Overall, the SMG treatment inhibited eye growth with few side effects from the injections. CONCLUSIONS: Cross-linking solutions delivered via sub-Tenon injection provide a potential method for limiting axial length growth in progressive myopia and could be used as a potential treatment for myopia.

Pathologic myopia: advances in imaging and the potential role of artificial intelligence.

Pathologic myopia is a severe form of myopia that can lead to permanent visual impairment. The recent global increase in the prevalence of myopia has been projected to lead to a higher incidence of pathologic myopia in the future. Thus, imaging myopic eyes to detect early pathological changes, or predict myopia progression to allow for early intervention, has become a key priority. Recent advances in optical coherence tomography (OCT) have contributed to the new grading system for myopic maculopathy and myopic traction maculopathy, which may improve phenotyping and thus, clinical management. Widefield fundus and OCT imaging has improved the detection of posterior staphyloma. Non-invasive OCT angiography has enabled depth-resolved imaging for myopic choroidal neovascularisation. Artificial intelligence (AI) has shown great performance in detecting pathologic myopia and the identification of myopia-associated complications. These advances in imaging with adjunctive AI analysis may lead to improvements in monitoring disease progression or guiding treatments. In this review, we provide an update on the classification of pathologic myopia, how imaging has improved clinical evaluation and management of myopia-associated complications, and the recent development of AI algorithms to aid the detection and classification of pathologic myopia.

Predictors of myopic macular degeneration in a 12-year longitudinal study of Singapore adults with myopia.

PURPOSE: To investigate the predictive factors for myopic macular degeneration (MMD) and progression in adults with myopia. METHODS: We examined 828 Malay and Indian adults (1579 myopic eyes) with myopia (spherical equivalent (SE) ≤-0.5 dioptres) at baseline who participated in both baseline and 12-year follow-up visits of the Singapore Malay Eye Study and the Singapore Indian Eye Study. Eye examinations, including subjective refraction and axial length (AL) measurements, were performed. MMD was graded from fundus photographs following the Meta-Analysis for Pathologic Myopia classification. The predictive factors for MMD development and progression were assessed in adults without and with MMD at baseline, respectively as risk ratios (RR) using multivariable modified Poisson regression models. The receiver operating characteristic curve was used to visualise the performance of the predictive models for the development of MMD, with performance quantified by the area under the curve (AUC). RESULTS: The 12-year cumulative MMD incidence was 10.3% (95% CI 8.9% to 12.0%) among 1504 myopic eyes without MMD at baseline. Tessellated fundus was a major predictor of MMD (RR=2.50, p<0.001), among other factors including age, worse SE and longer AL (all p<0.001). The AUC for prediction of MMD development was found to be 0.78 (95% CI 0.76 to 0.80) for tessellated fundus and increased significantly to an AUC of 0.86 (95% CI 0.84 to 0.88) with the combination of tessellated fundus with age, race, gender and SE (p<0.001). Older age (p=0.02), worse SE (p<0.001) and longer AL (p<0.001) were found to be predictors of MMD progression. CONCLUSIONS: In adults with myopia without MMD, tessellated fundus, age, SE and AL had good predictive value for incident MMD. In adults with MMD, 1 in 10 eyes experienced progression over the same period. Older age, more severe myopia and longer AL were independent risk factors for progression.

NODULAR EPIRETINAL MÜLLER CELL GLIOSIS IN THE FOVEA.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to report the findings of a hyperreflective nodular epiretinal gliosis observed with optical coherence tomography presumed to be due to subclinical hyaloidal traction causing Mϋller cell cone gliosis. METHODS: Retrospective, observational case series. RESULTS: Six eyes of six patients (mean age: 57 years, range 35-81 years) presented with a nodular epiretinal gliosis and had an average follow-up interval of 26 months (range 1-82 months). The mean baseline best-corrected visual acuity was 0.25 ± 0.17 (Snellen equivalent 20/38.3 ± 16.9). Fundus photography demonstrated a yellowish lesion overlying the fovea. Optical coherence tomography imaging revealed a hyperreflective preretinal lesion with a mean vertical length of 267 µ m (range 185-497) and a mean greatest linear diameter of 312 µ m (range 124-640). There was no vitreoretinal abnormality including vitreomacular traction or epiretinal membrane noted in any eye, and two of six eyes displayed a definitive posterior vitreous detachment. These nodules may have occurred before and persisted even after a posterior vitreous detachment or may have been acquired after the posterior vitreous detachment. The nodules typically remained stable with minimal change although in one eye, a posterior vitreous detachment occurred 6 months after initial presentation and lifted the gliosis off of the retinal surface where it remained attached to the posterior hyaloid. CONCLUSION: Foveal nodular epiretinal gliosis may occur due to subclinical hyaloidal traction on the Müller cell cone even without obvious vitreoretinal interface abnormality on optical coherence tomography.

Quantitative assessment of the choroidal vasculature in myopic macular degeneration with optical coherence tomographic angiography.

Background: To assess and compare choroidal morphometric vascular parameters, using optical coherence tomographic angiography (OCTA), in highly myopic adults with and without myopic macular degeneration (MMD). Methods: This is a clinic-based observational study of 148 eyes with axial length (AL) ≥25mm, enrolled from the high myopia clinic of the Singapore National Eye Centre. MMD was graded from fundus photographs. Swept source OCT (SS-OCT) and OCTA were performed and assessed for choroidal layer thickness (CT) and choroidal vasculature (choroidal vessel density (CVD), choroidal branch area (CBA) and mean choroidal vessel width (MCVW)) in the different choroidal layers (overall choroidal layer (CL), medium-vessel choroidal layer (MVCL), large-vessel choroidal layer (LVCL)). Results: CTCL (r=-0.58, p<0.001), CTMVCL (r=-0.22, p=0.04), MCVWCL (r=-0.58, p<0.001), and CVDCL (r=-0.19, p=0.02) were negatively correlated with AL, while CBACL (r=0.61, p<0.001) was positively correlated. Compared to eyes with no MMD, eyes with MMD2 had lower CTCL (120.37±47.18µm vs 218.33±92.70µm, p<0.001), CTMVCL (70.57±15.28µm vs 85.32±23.71µm, p=0.04), CTLVCL (101.65±25.36µm vs 154.55±68.41µm, p=0.001) and greater CVDCL (71.10±3.97% vs 66.97±3.63%, p<0.001), CVDMVCL (66.96±2.35% vs 65.06±2.69%, p=0.002), CVDLVCL (68.36±2.56% vs 66.58±2.88%, p=0.012), MCVWMVCL (6.14±0.34µm vs 5.90±0.35µm, p=0.007), and CBACL (12.69±1.38% vs 11.34±1.18%, p<0.001). After adjusting for age, thicker CTCL (odds ratio (OR) 0.98, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.97-0.99, p<0.001), CTMVCL (OR 0.97 (0.94-0.99), p=0.002) and CTLVCL (OR 0.97 (0.96-0.98, p<0.001) were significantly associated with lower odds of MMD2, while increased CVDCL (OR 1.37 (1.20-1.55), p<0.001), CVDMVCL (OR 1.39 (1.12-1.73), p=0.003), CVDLVCL (OR 1.31 (1.07-1.60), p=0.009), CBACL (OR 2.19 (1.55-3.08), p<0.001) and MCVWMVCL (OR 6.97 (1.59-30.51), p=0.01) was significantly associated with higher odds of MMD2. Conclusion: Decrease in choroidal vessel width, density and thickness, and an increase in vascular branching were observed in eyes with long AL. A thinner and denser choroid with greater branching area and vessel width, which may all be signs of hypoxia, were associated with greater odds of MMD2.

Choroidal Thickness in Early Postnatal Guinea Pigs Predicts Subsequent Naturally Occurring and Form-Deprivation Myopia.

Purpose: To identify choroidal characteristics associated with susceptibility to development of naturally occurring and experimentally induced myopia. Methods: We compared choroidal properties between pigmented and albino guinea pig (GP) strains. Biometry, cycloplegic refractive error (RE), and eye wall sublayer thickness were measured from 171 GPs at postnatal day (P)6, 14, and 28. Forty-three P14 GPs underwent two-week monocular form-deprivation myopia (FDM). En face images of choroidal vasculature were obtained with a customized swept-source optical coherence tomography. Multivariate regression analyses were performed, with P28 RE as the outcome and P14 choroidal thickness (ChT) as the main predictor variable. Proteomic analysis was performed on choroidal tissue from P14 albino and pigmented GPs. Results: At P14, RE was correlated with thickness of the choroid (ß = 0.06), sclera (ß = 0.12), and retina (ß = 0.27; all P < 0.001). P14 ChT was correlated with P28 RE both with (ß = 0.06, P = 0.0007) and without FDM (ß = 0.05, P = 0.008). Multivariate regression analysis, taking into account FDM (versus physiological growth) and strain, revealed that for every 10-µm greater ChT at P14, P28 RE was 0.50D more positive (P = 0.005, n = 70). En face images of choroidal sublayers showed that albino choroids were relatively underdeveloped, with frequent avascular regions. Consistent with this finding, proteomic analysis suggested abnormalities of the nitric oxide system in the albino GP choroid. Conclusions: Current results are consistent with the notion that greater ChT could protect from or delay the onset of myopia, while lower ChT is associated with greater susceptibility to myopia development. The underlying mechanism could be related to dysfunction of the choroidal vascular system.

Automated Classification and Detection of Staphyloma with Ultrasound Images in Pathologic Myopia Eyes.

The aim of this study was to develop an eyewall curvature- and axial length (AxL)-based algorithm to automate detection (clinician-free) of staphyloma ridge and apex locations using ultrasound (US). Forty-six individuals (with emmetropia, high myopia or pathologic myopia) were enrolled in this study (AxL range: 22.3-39.3 mm), yielding 130 images in total. An intensity-based segmentation algorithm automatically tracked the posterior eyewall, calculating the posterior eyewall local curvature (K) and distance (L) to the transducer and the location of the staphyloma apex. By use of the area under the receiver operator characteristic (AUROC) curve to evaluate the diagnostic ability of eight local statistics derived from K, L and AxL, the algorithm successfully quantified non-uniformity of eye shape with an AUROC > 0.70 for most K-based parameters. The performance of binary classification (staphyloma absence vs. presence) was assessed with the best classifier (the combination of AxL, standard deviation of K and standard deviation of L) yielding a diagnostic validation performance of 0.897, which was comparable to the diagnostic performance of junior clinicians. The staphyloma apex was localized with an average error of 1.35 ± 1.34 mm. Combined with the real-time data acquisition capabilities of US, this method can be employed as a screening tool for clinician-free in vivo staphyloma detection.