Chemical approaches to the sulfation of small molecules: current progress and future directions.

Sulfation is one of the most important modifications that occur to a wide range of bioactive small molecules including polysaccharides, proteins, flavonoids, and steroids. In turn, these sulfated molecules have significant biological and pharmacological roles in diverse processes including cell signalling, modulation of immune and inflammation response, anti-coagulation, anti-atherosclerosis, and anti-adhesive properties. This Essay summarises the most encountered chemical sulfation methods of small molecules. Sulfation reactions using sulfur trioxide amine/amide complexes are the most used method for alcohol and phenol groups in carbohydrates, steroids, proteins, and related scaffolds. Despite the effectiveness of these methods, they suffer from issues including multiple-purification steps, toxicity issues (e.g., pyridine contamination), purification challenges, stoichiometric excess of reagents which leads to an increase in reaction cost, and intrinsic stability issues of both the reagent and product. Recent advances including SuFEx, the in situ reagent approach, and TBSAB show the widespread appeal of novel sulfating approaches that will enable a larger exploration of the field in the years to come by simplifying the purification and isolation process to access bespoke sulfated small molecules.

Computational Predictive and Electrochemical Detection of Metabolites (CP-EDM) of Piperine.

In this article, we introduce a proof-of-concept strategy, Computational Predictive and Electrochemical Detection of Metabolites (CP-EDM), to expedite the discovery of drug metabolites. The use of a bioactive natural product, piperine, that has a well-curated metabolite profile but an unpredictable computational metabolism (Biotransformer v3.0) was selected. We developed an electrochemical reaction to oxidize piperine into a range of metabolites, which were detected by LC-MS. A series of chemically plausible metabolites were predicted based on ion fragmentation patterns. These metabolites were docked into the active site of CYP3A4 using Autodock4.2. From the clustered low-energy profile of piperine in the active site, it can be inferred that the most likely metabolic position of piperine (based on intermolecular distances to the Fe-oxo active site) is the benzo[d][1,3]dioxole motif. The metabolic profile was confirmed by comparison with the literature, and the electrochemical reaction delivered plausible metabolites, vide infra, thus, demonstrating the power of the hyphenated technique of tandem electrochemical detection and computational evaluation of binding poses. Taken together, we outline a novel approach where diverse data sources are combined to predict and confirm a metabolic outcome for a bioactive structure.

Rearrangement of Arylsulfamates and Sulfates to Para-Sulfonyl Anilines and Phenols.

The C(sp2)-aryl sulfonate functional group is found in bioactive molecules, but their synthesis can involve extreme temperatures (>190 °C or flash vacuum pyrolysis) and strongly acidic reaction conditions. Inspired by the 1917 Tyrer industrial process for a sulfa dye that involved an aniline N(sp2)-SO3 intermediate en route to a C(sp2)-SO3 rearranged product, we investigated tributylsulfoammonium betaine (TBSAB) as a milder N-sulfamation to C-sulfonate relay reagent. Initial investigations of a stepwise route involving TBSAB on selected anilines at room temperature enabled the isolation of N(sp2)-sulfamate. Subsequent thermal rearrangement demonstrated the intermediary of a sulfamate en route to the sulfonate; however, it was low-yielding. Investigation of the N-sulfamate to C--sulfonate mechanism through control experiments with variation at the heteroatom positions and kinetic isotope experiments (KIEH/D) confirmed the formation of a key N(sp2)-SO3 intermediate and further confirmed an intermolecular mechanism. Furthermore, compounds without an accessible nitrogen (or oxygen) lone pair did not undergo sulfamation- (or sulfation) -to-sulfonation under these conditions. A one-pot sulfamation and thermal sulfonation reaction was ultimately developed and explored on a range of aniline and heterocyclic scaffolds with high conversions, including N(sp2)-sulfamates (O(sp2)-sulfates) and C(sp2)-sulfonates, in up to 99 and 80% (and 88% for a phenolic example) isolated yield, respectively. Encouragingly, the ability to modulate the ortho-para selectivity of the products obtained was observed under thermal control. A sulfonated analog of the intravenous anesthetic propofol was isolated (88% yield), demonstrating a proof-of-concept modification of a licensed drug alongside a range of nitrogen- and sulfur-containing heterocyclic fragments used in drug discovery.

A General Method to Access Underexplored Ylideneamino Sulfates as Interrupted Beckmann-Type Rearrangement Intermediates.

The Beckmann rearrangement of ketoximes to their corresponding amides, using a Brønsted acid-mediated fragmentation and migration sequence, has found wide-spread industrial application. We postulated that the development of a methodology to access ylideneamino sulfates using tributylsulfoammonium betaine (TBSAB) would afford isolable Beckmann-type intermediates and competent partners for subsequent rearrangement cascades. The ylideneamino sulfates generated, isolated as their tributylammonium salts, are sufficiently activated to undergo Beckmann rearrangement without additional reagent activation. The generation of sulfuric acid in situ from the ylideneamino sulfate giving rise to a routine Beckmann rearrangement and additional amide bond cleavage to the corresponding aniline was detrimental to reaction success. The screening of bases revealed inexpensive sodium bicarbonate to be an effective additive to prevent classic Brønsted acid-mediated fragmentation and achieve optimal conversions of up to 99%.

Novel Glycomimetics Protect against Glycated Low-Density Lipoprotein-Induced Vascular Calcification In Vitro via Attenuation of the RAGE/ERK/CREB Pathway.

Heparan sulphate (HS) can act as a co-receptor on the cell surface and alterations in this process underpin many pathological conditions. We have previously described the usefulness of mimics of HS (glycomimetics) in protection against ß-glycerophosphate-induced vascular calcification and in the restoration of the functional capacity of diabetic endothelial colony-forming cells in vitro. This study aims to investigate whether our novel glycomimetic compounds can attenuate glycated low-density lipoprotein (g-LDL)-induced calcification by inhibiting RAGE signalling within the context of critical limb ischemia (CLI). We used an established osteogenic in vitro vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) model. Osteoprotegerin (OPG), sclerostin and glycation levels were all significantly increased in CLI serum compared to healthy controls, while the vascular calcification marker osteocalcin (OCN) was down-regulated in CLI patients vs. controls. Incubation with both CLI serum and g-LDL (10 µg/mL) significantly increased VSMC calcification vs. controls after 21 days, with CLI serum-induced calcification apparent after only 10 days. Glycomimetics (C2 and C3) significantly inhibited g-LDL and CLI serum-induced mineralisation, as shown by a reduction in alizarin red (AR) staining and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity. Furthermore, secretion of the osteogenic marker OCN was significantly reduced in VSMCs incubated with CLI serum in the presence of glycomimetics. Phosphorylation of cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB) was significantly increased in g-LDL-treated cells vs. untreated controls, which was attenuated with glycomimetics. Blocking CREB activation with a pharmacological inhibitor 666-15 replicated the protective effects of glycomimetics, evidenced by elevated AR staining. In silico molecular docking simulations revealed the binding affinity of the glycomimetics C2 and C3 with the V domain of RAGE. In conclusion, these findings demonstrate that novel glycomimetics, C2 and C3 have potent anti-calcification properties in vitro, inhibiting both g-LDL and CLI serum-induced VSMC mineralisation via the inhibition of LDLR, RAGE, CREB and subsequent expression of the downstream osteogenic markers, ALP and OCN.

Cobdock: an accurate and practical machine learning-based consensus blind docking method.

Probing the surface of proteins to predict the binding site and binding affinity for a given small molecule is a critical but challenging task in drug discovery. Blind docking addresses this issue by performing docking on binding regions randomly sampled from the entire protein surface. However, compared with local docking, blind docking is less accurate and reliable because the docking space is too largetly sampled. Cavity detection-guided blind docking methods improved the accuracy by using cavity detection (also known as binding site detection) tools to guide the docking procedure. However, it is worth noting that the performance of these methods heavily relies on the quality of the cavity detection tool. This constraint, namely the dependence on a single cavity detection tool, significantly impacts the overall performance of cavity detection-guided methods. To overcome this limitation, we proposed Consensus Blind Dock (CoBDock), a novel blind, parallel docking method that uses machine learning algorithms to integrate docking and cavity detection results to improve not only binding site identification but also pose prediction accuracy. Our experiments on several datasets, including PDBBind 2020, ADS, MTi, DUD-E, and CASF-2016, showed that CoBDock has better binding site and binding mode performance than other state-of-the-art cavity detector tools and blind docking methods.

Phosphorylation Dynamics in a flg22-Induced, G Protein-Dependent Network Reveals the AtRGS1 Phosphatase.

The microbe-associated molecular pattern flg22 is recognized in a flagellin-sensitive 2-dependent manner in root tip cells. Here, we show a rapid and massive change in protein abundance and phosphorylation state of the Arabidopsis root cell proteome in WT and a mutant deficient in heterotrimeric G-protein-coupled signaling. flg22-induced changes fall on proteins comprising a subset of this proteome, the heterotrimeric G protein interactome, and on highly-populated hubs of the immunity network. Approximately 95% of the phosphorylation changes in the heterotrimeric G-protein interactome depend, at least partially, on a functional G protein complex. One member of this interactome is ATBα, a substrate-recognition subunit of a protein phosphatase 2A complex and an interactor to Arabidopsis thaliana Regulator of G Signaling 1 protein (AtRGS1), a flg22-phosphorylated, 7-transmembrane spanning modulator of the nucleotide-binding state of the core G-protein complex. A null mutation of ATBα strongly increases basal endocytosis of AtRGS1. AtRGS1 steady-state protein level is lower in the atbα mutant in a proteasome-dependent manner. We propose that phosphorylation-dependent endocytosis of AtRGS1 is part of the mechanism to degrade AtRGS1, thus sustaining activation of the heterotrimeric G protein complex required for the regulation of system dynamics in innate immunity. The PP2A(ATBα) complex is a critical regulator of this signaling pathway.

Found: The missing discriminators of cell-surface auxin receptors.

An Arabidopsis cell-surface auxin receptor that mediates rapid elongation consists of transmembrane kinases (TMKs) and an auxin-binding co-receptor. Auxin-binding protein 1 (ABP1) is one identified TMK co-receptor, but abp1 mutants have no elongation phenotypes. Yu et al. use structural analysis of the ABP1-binding pocket to identify functional ABP1-like (ABL) TMK co-receptors that regulate rapid growth.

Solvent-Induced Lag Phase during the Formation of Lysozyme Amyloid Fibrils Triggered by Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate: Biophysical Experimental and In Silico Study of Solvent Effects.

Amyloid aggregates arise from either the partial or complete loss of the native protein structure or the inability of proteins to attain their native conformation. These aggregates have been linked to several diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and lysozyme amyloidosis. A comprehensive dataset was recently reported, demonstrating the critical role of the protein's surrounding environment in amyloid formation. In this study, we investigated the formation of lysozyme amyloid fibrils induced by sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and the effect of solvents in the medium. Experimental data obtained through fluorescence spectroscopy revealed a notable lag phase in amyloid formation when acetone solution was present. This finding suggested that the presence of acetone in the reaction medium created an unfavorable microenvironment for amyloid fibril formation and impeded the organization of the denatured protein into the fibril form. The in silico data provided insights into the molecular mechanism of the interaction between acetone molecules and the lysozyme protofibril, once acetone presented the best experimental results. It was observed that the lysozyme protofibril became highly unstable in the presence of acetone, leading to the complete loss of its ß-sheet conformation and resulting in an open structure. Furthermore, the solvation layer of the protofibril in acetone solution was significantly reduced compared to that in other solvents, resulting in fewer hydrogen bonds. Consequently, the presence of acetone facilitated the exposure of the hydrophobic portion of the protofibril, precluding the amyloid fibril formation. In summary, our study underscores the pivotal role the surrounding environment plays in influencing amyloid formation.

Model of ligand-triggered information transmission in G-protein coupled receptor complexes.

We present a model for the effects of ligands on information transmission in G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) complexes. The model is built ab initio entirely on principles of statistical mechanics and tenets of information transmission theory and was validated in part using agonist-induced effector activity and signaling bias for the angiotensin- and adrenergic-mediated signaling pathways, with in vitro observations of phosphorylation sites on the C tail of the GPCR complex, and single-cell information-transmission experiments. The model extends traditional kinetic models that form the basis for many existing models of GPCR signaling. It is based on maximizing the rates of entropy production and information transmission through the GPCR complex. The model predicts that (1) phosphatase-catalyzed reactions, as opposed to kinase-catalyzed reactions, on the C-tail and internal loops of the GPCR are responsible for controlling the signaling activity, (2) signaling favors the statistical balance of the number of switches in the ON state and the number in the OFF state, and (3) biased-signaling response depends discontinuously on ligand concentration.

Green electrosynthesis of drug metabolites.

In this concise review, the field of electrosynthesis (ES) as a green methodology for understanding drug metabolites linked to toxicology is exemplified. ES describes the synthesis of chemical compounds in an electrochemical cell. Compared to a conventional chemical reaction, ES operates under green conditions (the electron is the reagent) and has several industrial applications, including the synthesis of drug metabolites for toxicology testing. Understanding which circulating drug metabolites are formed in the body is a crucial stage in the development of new medicines and gives insight into any potential toxic pathologies resulting from the metabolites formed. Current methods to prepare drug metabolites directly from the drug molecule often involve time-consuming multistep syntheses. Throughout this review, the application of green ES to (i) identify drug metabolites, (ii) enable their efficient synthesis, and (iii) investigate the toxicity of the metabolites generated are highlighted.

Plastid Genome Assembly Using Long-read data.

Although plastid genome (plastome) structure is highly conserved across most seed plants, investigations during the past two decades have revealed several disparately related lineages that experienced substantial rearrangements. Most plastomes contain a large inverted repeat and two single-copy regions, and a few dispersed repeats; however, the plastomes of some taxa harbour long repeat sequences (>300 bp). These long repeats make it challenging to assemble complete plastomes using short-read data, leading to misassemblies and consensus sequences with spurious rearrangements. Single-molecule, long-read sequencing has the potential to overcome these challenges, yet there is no consensus on the most effective method for accurately assembling plastomes using long-read data. We generated a pipeline, plastid Genome Assembly Using Long-read data (ptGAUL), to address the problem of plastome assembly using long-read data from Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT) or Pacific Biosciences platforms. We demonstrated the efficacy of the ptGAUL pipeline using 16 published long-read data sets. We showed that ptGAUL quickly produces accurate and unbiased assemblies using only ~50× coverage of plastome data. Additionally, we deployed ptGAUL to assemble four new Juncus (Juncaceae) plastomes using ONT long reads. Our results revealed many long repeats and rearrangements in Juncus plastomes compared with basal lineages of Poales. The ptGAUL pipeline is available on GitHub: https://github.com/Bean061/ptgaul.

Suspected adverse drug reactions of the type 2 antidiabetic drug class dipeptidyl-peptidase IV inhibitors (DPP4i): Can polypharmacology help explain?

To interpret the relationship between the polypharmacology of dipeptidyl-peptidase IV inhibitors (DPP4i) and their suspected adverse drug reaction (ADR) profiles using a national registry. A retrospective investigation into the suspected ADR profile of four licensed DPP4i in the United Kingdom using the National MHRA Yellow Card Scheme and OpenPrescribing databases. Experimental data from the ChEMBL database alongside physiochemical (PC) and pharmacokinetic (PK) profiles were extracted and interpreted. DPP4i show limited polypharmacology alongside low suspected ADR rates. We found a minimal statistical difference between the unique ADR profiles ascribed to the DPP4i except for total ADRs (χ2 ; p < .05). Alogliptin consistently showed the highest suspected ADR rate per 1 000 000 items prescribed. Saxagliptin showed the lowest suspected ADR rate across all organ classes but did not reach statistical difference (χ2 ; p > .05). We confirmed the Phase III clinical trial data that showed gastrointestinal and skin reactions are the most reported ADRs across the DPP4i class and postulated underlying mechanisms for this based on possible drug interactions. The main pharmacological mechanism behind the ADRs is attributed to interactions with DPP4 activity and/or structure homolog (DASH) proteins which augment the immune-inflammatory modulation of DPP4.

G protein controls stress readiness by modulating transcriptional and metabolic homeostasis in Arabidopsis thaliana and Marchantia polymorpha.

The core G protein signaling module, which consists of Gα and extra-large Gα (XLG) subunits coupled with the Gßγ dimer, is a master regulator of various stress responses. In this study, we compared the basal and salt stress-induced transcriptomic, metabolomic and phenotypic profiles in Gα, Gß, and XLG-null mutants of two plant species, Arabidopsis thaliana and Marchantia polymorpha, and showed that G protein mediates the shift of transcriptional and metabolic homeostasis to stress readiness status. We demonstrated that such stress readiness serves as an intrinsic protection mechanism against further stressors through enhancing the phenylpropanoid pathway and abscisic acid responses. Furthermore, WRKY transcription factors were identified as key intermediates of G protein-mediated homeostatic shifts. Statistical and mathematical model comparisons between A. thaliana and M. polymorpha revealed evolutionary conservation of transcriptional and metabolic networks over land plant evolution, whereas divergence has occurred in the function of plant-specific atypical XLG subunit. Taken together, our results indicate that the shifts in transcriptional and metabolic homeostasis at least partially act as the mechanisms of G protein-coupled stress responses that are conserved between two distantly related plants.

Maize Lethal Necrosis disease: review of molecular and genetic resistance mechanisms, socio-economic impacts, and mitigation strategies in sub-Saharan Africa.

BACKGROUND: Maize lethal necrosis (MLN) disease is a significant constraint for maize producers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The disease decimates the maize crop, in some cases, causing total crop failure with far-reaching impacts on regional food security. RESULTS: In this review, we analyze the impacts of MLN in Africa, finding that resource-poor farmers and consumers are the most vulnerable populations. We examine the molecular mechanism of MLN virus transmission, role of vectors and host plant resistance identifying a range of potential opportunities for genetic and phytosanitary interventions to control MLN. We discuss the likely exacerbating effects of climate change on the MLN menace and describe a sobering example of negative genetic association between tolerance to heat/drought and susceptibility to viral infection. We also review role of microRNAs in host plant response to MLN causing viruses as well as heat/drought stress that can be carefully engineered to develop resistant varieties using novel molecular techniques. CONCLUSIONS: With the dual drivers of increased crop loss due to MLN and increased demand of maize for food, the development and deployment of simple and safe technologies, like resistant cultivars developed through accelerated breeding or emerging gene editing technologies, will have substantial positive impact on livelihoods in the region. We have summarized the available genetic resources and identified a few large-effect QTLs that can be further exploited to accelerate conversion of existing farmer-preferred varieties into resistant cultivars.

A Computational-Experimental Investigation of the Molecular Mechanism of Interleukin-6-Piperine Interaction.

Herein, we elucidate the biophysical aspects of the interaction of an important protein, Interleukin-6 (IL6), which is involved in cytokine storm syndrome, with a natural product with anti-inflammatory activity, piperine. Despite the role of piperine in the inhibition of the transcriptional protein NF-κB pathway responsible for activation of IL6 gene expression, there are no studies to the best of our knowledge regarding the characterisation of the molecular interaction of the IL6-piperine complex. In this context, the characterisation was performed with spectroscopic experiments aided by molecular modelling. Fluorescence spectroscopy alongside van't Hoff analyses showed that the complexation event is a spontaneous process driven by non-specific interactions. Circular dichroism aided by molecular dynamics revealed that piperine caused local α-helix reduction. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics disclosed the microenvironment of interaction as non-polar amino acid residues. Although piperine has three available hydrogen bond acceptors, only one hydrogen-bond was formed during our simulation experiments, reinforcing the major role of non-specific interactions that we observed experimentally. Root mean square deviation (RMSD) and hydrodynamic radii revealed that the IL6-piperine complex was stable during 800 ns of simulation. Taken together, these results can support ongoing IL6 drug discovery efforts.

G-Protein Phosphorylation: Aspects of Binding Specificity and Function in the Plant Kingdom.

Plant survival depends on adaptive mechanisms that constantly rely on signal recognition and transduction. The predominant class of signal discriminators is receptor kinases, with a vast member composition in plants. The transduction of signals occurs in part by a simple repertoire of heterotrimeric G proteins, with a core composed of α-, ß-, and γ-subunits, together with a 7-transmembrane Regulator G Signaling (RGS) protein. With a small repertoire of G proteins in plants, phosphorylation by receptor kinases is critical in regulating the active state of the G-protein complex. This review describes the in vivo detected phosphosites in plant G proteins and conservation scores, and their in vitro corresponding kinases. Furthermore, recently described outcomes, including novel arrestin-like internalization of RGS and a non-canonical phosphorylation switching mechanism that drives G-protein plasticity, are discussed.

Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) and manufacturing contamination: A retrospective National Register Study into suspected associated adverse drug reactions.

AIMS: The aim of this study was to determine if any suspected adverse drug reactions (ADRs) observed with the use of angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) could be linked to either (a) their unique respective physicochemical and pharmacological profiles and (b) the recently disclosed suspected carcinogenic manufacturing contaminants found in certain sartan drug class batches. METHODS: The pharmacology profiles of ARBs were data-mined from the Chemical Database of bioactive molecules with drug-like properties, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (ChEMBL). Suspected ADR data (from 01/2016-10/2022, inclusive) and prescribing rates of ARBs over a 5-year prescribing window (from 09/2016 to 08/2021, inclusive) were obtained via analysis of the United Kingdom Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Authority (MHRA) Yellow Card drug analysis profile and Open prescribing databases, respectively. RESULTS: The overall suspected ADRs and fatalities per 100 000 prescriptions identified across the ARBs studied were found to be different between the sartan drug class members (chi-squared test, P < .05). There is a greater relative rate of reports for valsartan across all investigated organ classes of ADRs, than other ARBs, despite valsartan's more limited pharmacological profile and similar physicochemical properties to other sartans. The disparity in ADR reporting rates with valsartan vs other ARBs could be due to the dissimilarity in formulation excipients, patient factors and publicity surrounding batch contaminations, amongst others. Cancer-related ADRs and fatalities per 100 000 prescriptions identified across the ARBs studied are not statistically significant (chi-squared test, P > .05) based on the datasets used over the 5-year period. CONCLUSION: No connection between ARB pharmacology and their suspected ADRs could be found. No conclusion between sartan batch contaminations and increased suspected cancer-related ADRs was found.

Discovery and Characterization of a Cryptic Secondary Binding Site in the Molecular Chaperone HSP70.

Heat Shock Protein 70s (HSP70s) are key molecular chaperones that are overexpressed in many cancers and often associated with metastasis and poor prognosis. It has proven difficult to develop ATP-competitive, drug-like small molecule inhibitors of HSP70s due to the flexible and hydrophilic nature of the HSP70 ATP-binding site and its high affinity for endogenous nucleotides. The aim of this study was to explore the potential for the inhibition of HSP70 through alternative binding sites using fragment-based approaches. A surface plasmon resonance (SPR) fragment screen designed to detect secondary binding sites in HSP70 led to the identification by X-ray crystallography of a cryptic binding site in the nucleotide-binding domain (NBD) of HSP70 adjacent to the ATP-binding site. Fragment binding was confirmed and characterized as ATP-competitive using SPR and ligand-observed NMR methods. Molecular dynamics simulations were applied to understand the interactions with the protein upon ligand binding, and local secondary structure changes consistent with interconversion between the observed crystal structures with and without the cryptic pocket were detected. A virtual high-throughput screen (vHTS) against the cryptic pocket was conducted, and five compounds with diverse chemical scaffolds were confirmed to bind to HSP70 with micromolar affinity by SPR. These results identified and characterized a new targetable site on HSP70. While targeting HSP70 remains challenging, the new site may provide opportunities to develop allosteric ATP-competitive inhibitors with differentiated physicochemical properties from current series.

Identification of different side effects between PARP inhibitors and their polypharmacological multi-target rationale.

AIMS: The aim of this study was to determine the differences and potential mechanistic rationale for observed adverse drug reactions (ADRs) between four approved PARP inhibitors (PARPi). METHODS: The Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Authority (MHRA) Yellow Card drug analysis profiles and NHS secondary care medicines database enabled the identification of suspected ADRs associated with the PARPi in the UK from launch to 2020. The polypharmacology of the PARPi were data-mined from several public data sources. RESULTS: The overall ADRs per 100 000 Rx identified across the four PARPi are statistically significant (χ2 test, P < .001). Rucaparib has the greatest relative suspected ADRs, which can be explained by its least clean kinome and physicochemical properties. The suspected gastrointestinal ADRs of rucaparib and niraparib can be ascribed to their kinase polypharmacology. Suspected blood and lymphatic system ADRs of PARPi can be linked to their high volume of distribution (Vd ). The thrombocytopenia rate of niraparib > rucaparib > olaparib tracked with the Vd trend. Hypertension is only associated with niraparib and could be explained by the therapeutically achievable inhibition of DYRK1A and/or transporters. Arrhythmia cases are potentially linked to the structural features of hERG ion-channel inhibition found in rucaparib and niraparib. Enhanced psychiatric/nervous disorders associated with niraparib can be interpreted from the diverse neurotransporter off-targets reported. CONCLUSIONS: Despite their similar mode of action, the differential polypharmacology of PARP inhibitors influences their ADR profile.