A call for standardised age-disaggregated health data.

The 2030 Sustainable Development Goals agenda calls for health data to be disaggregated by age. However, age groupings used to record and report health data vary greatly, hindering the harmonisation, comparability, and usefulness of these data, within and across countries. This variability has become especially evident during the COVID-19 pandemic, when there was an urgent need for rapid cross-country analyses of epidemiological patterns by age to direct public health action, but such analyses were limited by the lack of standard age categories. In this Personal View, we propose a recommended set of age groupings to address this issue. These groupings are informed by age-specific patterns of morbidity, mortality, and health risks, and by opportunities for prevention and disease intervention. We recommend age groupings of 5 years for all health data, except for those younger than 5 years, during which time there are rapid biological and physiological changes that justify a finer disaggregation. Although the focus of this Personal View is on the standardisation of the analysis and display of age groups, we also outline the challenges faced in collecting data on exact age, especially for health facilities and surveillance data. The proposed age disaggregation should facilitate targeted, age-specific policies and actions for health care and disease management.

Changes in attitudes and behaviors supportive of maternal and newborn health in Ethiopia: an evaluative case study.

BACKGROUND: Ethiopia's high neonatal mortality rate led to the government's 2013 introduction of Community-Based Newborn Care (CBNC) to bring critical prevention and treatment interventions closer to communities in need. However, complex behaviors that are deeply embedded in social and cultural norms continue to prevent women and newborns from getting the care they need. A demand creation strategy was designed to create an enabling environment to support appropriate maternal, newborn, and child health (MNCH) behaviors and CBNC. We explored the extent to which attitudes and behaviors during the prenatal and perinatal periods varied by the implementation strength of the Demand Creation Strategy for MNCH-CBNC. METHODS: Using an embedded, multiple case study design, we purposively selected four kebeles (villages) from two districts with different levels of implementation strength of demand creation activities. We collected information from a total of 150 key stakeholders across kebeles using multiple qualitative methods including in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and illness narratives; sessions were transcribed into English and coded using NVivo 10.0. We developed case reports for each kebele and a final cross-case report to compare results from high and low implementation strength kebeles. RESULTS: We found that five MNCH attitudes and behaviors varied by implementation strength. In high implementation strength kebeles women felt more comfortable disclosing their pregnancy early, women sought antenatal care (ANC) in the first trimester, families did not have fatalistic ideas about newborn survival, mothers sought care for sick newborns in a timely manner, and newborns received care at the health facility in less than an hour. We also found changes across all kebeles that did not vary by implementation strength, including male engagement during pregnancy and a preference for giving birth at a health facility. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that a demand creation approach-combining participatory approaches with community empowering strategies-can promote shifts in behaviors and attitudes to support the health of mothers and newborns, including use of MNCH services. Future studies need to consider the most efficient level of intervention intensity to make the greatest impact on MNCH attitudes and behaviors.

Barriers and enablers to routine register data collection for newborns and mothers: EN-BIRTH multi-country validation study.

BACKGROUND: Policymakers need regular high-quality coverage data on care around the time of birth to accelerate progress for ending preventable maternal and newborn deaths and stillbirths. With increasing facility births, routine Health Management Information System (HMIS) data have potential to track coverage. Identifying barriers and enablers faced by frontline health workers recording HMIS source data in registers is important to improve data for use. METHODS: The EN-BIRTH study was a mixed-methods observational study in five hospitals in Bangladesh, Nepal and Tanzania to assess measurement validity for selected Every Newborn coverage indicators. We described data elements required in labour ward registers to track these indicators. To evaluate barriers and enablers for correct recording of data in registers, we designed three interview tools: a) semi-structured in-depth interview (IDI) guide b) semi-structured focus group discussion (FGD) guide, and c) checklist assessing care-to-documentation. We interviewed two groups of respondents (January 2018-March 2019): hospital nurse-midwives and doctors who fill ward registers after birth (n = 40 IDI and n = 5 FGD); and data collectors (n = 65). Qualitative data were analysed thematically by categorising pre-identified codes. Common emerging themes of barriers or enablers across all five hospitals were identified relating to three conceptual framework categories. RESULTS: Similar themes emerged as both barriers and enablers. First, register design was recognised as crucial, yet perceived as complex, and not always standardised for necessary data elements. Second, register filling was performed by over-stretched nurse-midwives with variable training, limited supervision, and availability of logistical resources. Documentation complexity across parallel documents was time-consuming and delayed because of low staff numbers. Complete data were valued more than correct data. Third, use of register data included clinical handover and monthly reporting, but little feedback was given from data users. CONCLUSION: Health workers invest major time recording register data for maternal and newborn core health indicators. Improving data quality requires standardised register designs streamlined to capture only necessary data elements. Consistent implementation processes are also needed. Two-way feedback between HMIS levels is critical to improve performance and accurately track progress towards agreed health goals.

Operationalising health systems thinking: a pathway to high effective coverage.

BACKGROUND: The global health community has recognised the importance of defining and measuring the effective coverage of health interventions and their implementation strength to monitor progress towards global mortality and morbidity targets. Existing health system models and frameworks guide thinking around these measurement areas; however, they fall short of adequately capturing the dynamic and multi-level relationships between different components of the health system. These relationships must be articulated for measurement and managed to effectively deliver health interventions of sufficient quality to achieve health impacts. Save the Children's Saving Newborn Lives programme and EnCompass LLC, its evaluation partner, developed and applied the Pathway to High Effective Coverage as a health systems thinking framework (hereafter referred to as the Pathway) in its strategic planning, monitoring and evaluation. METHODS: We used an iterative approach to develop, test and refine thinking around the Pathway. The initial framework was developed based on existing literature, then shared and vetted during consultations with global health thought leaders in maternal and newborn health. RESULTS: The Pathway is a robust health systems thinking framework that unpacks system, policy and point of intervention delivery factors, thus encouraging specific actions to address gaps in implementation and facilitate the achievement of high effective coverage. The Pathway includes six main components - (1) national readiness; (2) system structures; (3) management capacity; (4) implementation strength; (5) effective coverage; and (6) impact. Each component is comprised of specific elements reflecting the range of facility-, community- and home-based interventions. We describe applications of the Pathway and results for in-country strategic planning, monitoring of progress and implementation strength, and evaluation. CONCLUSIONS: The Pathway provides a cohesive health systems thinking framework that facilitates assessment and coordinated action to achieve high coverage and impact. Experiences of its application show its utility in guiding strategic planning and in more comprehensive and effective monitoring and evaluation as well as its potential adaptability for use in other health areas and sectors.

Managing possible serious bacterial infection of young infants where referral is not possible: Lessons from the early implementation experience in Kushtia District learning laboratory, Bangladesh.

BACKGROUND: Serious infections account for 25% of global newborn deaths annually, most in low-resource settings where hospital-based treatment is not accessible or feasible. In Bangladesh, one-third of neonatal deaths are attributable to serious infection; in 2014, the government adopted new policy for outpatient management of danger signs indicating possible serious bacterial infections (PSBI) when referral was not possible. We conducted implementation research to understand what it takes for a district health team to implement quality outpatient PSBI management per national guidelines. METHODS: PSBI management was introduced as part of the Comprehensive Newborn Care Package in 2015. The study piloted this package through government health systems with limited partner support to inform scale-up efforts. Data collection included facility register reviews for cases seen at primary level facilities; facility readiness and provider knowledge and skills assessments; household surveys capturing caregiver knowledge of newborn danger signs and care-seeking for newborn illness; and follow-up case tracking, capturing treatment adherence and outcomes. Analysis consisted of descriptive statistics. RESULTS: Over the 15-month implementation period, 1432 young infants received care, of which 649 (45%) were classified as PSBI. Estimated coverage of care-seeking increased from 22% to 42% during the implementation period. Although facility readiness and providers' skills increased, providers' adherence to guidelines was not optimal. Among locally managed PSBI cases, 75% completed the oral antibiotic course and 15% received the fourth day follow-up. Care-seeking remained high among private providers (95%), predominantly village health doctors (over 80%). CONCLUSIONS: Facility readiness, including health care provider knowledge and skills were strengthened; future efforts should focus on improving provider adherence to guidelines. Social and behavior change strategies targeting families and communities should explore shifting care-seeking from private, possibly less-qualified providers. Strategies to improve private sector management of PSBI cases and improved linkages between private and public sector providers could be explored.

What is meant by validity in maternal and newborn health measurement? A conceptual framework for understanding indicator validation.

BACKGROUND: Rigorous monitoring supports progress in achieving maternal and newborn mortality and morbidity reductions. Recent work to strengthen measurement for maternal and newborn health highlights the existence of a large number of indicators being used for this purpose. The definitions and data sources used to produce indicator estimates vary and challenges exist with completeness, accuracy, transparency, and timeliness of data. The objective of this study is to create a conceptual overview of how indicator validity is defined and understood by those who develop and use maternal and newborn health indicators. METHODS: A conceptual framework of validity was developed using mixed methods. We were guided by principles for conceptual frameworks and by a review of the literature and key maternal and newborn health indicator guidance documents. We also conducted qualitative semi-structured interviews with 32 key informants chosen through purposive sampling. RESULTS: We categorised indicator validity into three main types: criterion, convergent, and construct. Criterion or diagnostic validity, comparing a measure with a gold standard, has predominantly been used to assess indicators of care coverage and content. Studies assessing convergent validity quantify the extent to which two or more indicator measurement approaches, none of which is a gold-standard, relate. Key informants considered construct validity, or the accuracy of the operationalisation of a concept or phenomenon, a critical part of the overall assessment of indicator validity. CONCLUSION: Given concerns about the large number of maternal and newborn health indicators currently in use, a more consistent understanding of validity can help guide prioritization of key indicators and inform development of new indicators. All three types of validity are relevant for evaluating the performance of maternal and newborn health indicators. We highlight the need to establish a common language and understanding of indicator validity among the various global and local stakeholders working within maternal and newborn health.

Closing the inequality gaps in reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health coverage: slow and fast progressors.

Introduction: Universal Health Coverage (UHC) is a critical goal under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for health. Achieving this goal for reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health (RMNCH) service coverage will require an understanding of national progress and how socioeconomic and demographic subgroups of women and children are being reached by health interventions. Methods: We accessed coverage databases produced by the International Centre for Equity in Health, which were based on reanalysis of Demographic and Health Surveys, Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys and Reproductive and Health Surveys. We limited the data to 58 countries with at least two surveys since 2008. We fitted multilevel linear regressions of coverage of RMNCH, divided into four main components-reproductive health, maternal health, child immunisation and child illness treatment-to estimate the average annual percentage point change (AAPPC) in coverage for the period 2008-2017 across these countries and for subgroups defined by maternal age, education, place of residence and wealth quintiles. We also assessed change in the pace of coverage progress between the periods 2000-2008 and 2008-2017. Results: Progress in RMNCH coverage has been modest over the past decade, with statistically significant AAPPC observed only for maternal health (1.25, 95% CI 0.90 to 1.61) and reproductive health (0.83, 95% CI 0.47 to 1.19). AAPPC was not statistically significant for child immunisation and illness treatment. Progress, however, varied largely across countries, with fast or slow progressors spread throughout the low-income and middle-income groups. For reproductive and maternal health, low-income and lower middle-income countries appear to have progressed faster than upper middle-income countries. For these two components, faster progress was also observed in older women and in traditionally less well-off groups such as non-educated women, those living in rural areas or belonging to the poorest or middle wealth quintiles than among groups that are well off. The latter groups however continue to maintain substantially higher coverage levels over the former. No acceleration in RMNCH coverage was observed when the periods 2000-2008 and 2008-2017 were compared. Conclusion: At the dawn of the SDGs, progress in coverage in RMNCH remains insufficient at the national level and across equity dimensions to accelerate towards UHC by 2030. Greater attention must be paid to child immunisation to sustain the past gains and to child illness treatment to substantially raise its coverage across all groups.

Advances in the measurement of coverage for RMNCH and nutrition: from contact to effective coverage.

Current methods for measuring intervention coverage for reproductive, maternal, newborn, and child health and nutrition (RMNCH+N) do not adequately capture the quality of services delivered. Without information on the quality of care, it is difficult to assess whether services provided will result in expected health improvements. We propose a six-step coverage framework, starting from a target population to (1) service contact, (2) likelihood of services, (3) crude coverage, (4) quality-adjusted coverage, (5) user-adherence-adjusted coverage and (6) outcome-adjusted coverage. We support our framework with a comprehensive review of published literature on effective coverage for RMNCH+N interventions since 2000. We screened 8103 articles and selected 36 from which we summarised current methods for measuring effective coverage and computed the gaps between 'crude' coverage measures and quality-adjusted measures. Our review showed considerable variability in data sources, indicator definitions and analytical approaches for effective coverage measurement. Large gaps between crude coverage and quality-adjusted coverage levels were evident, ranging from an average of 10 to 38 percentage points across the RMNCH+N interventions assessed. We define effective coverage as the proportion of individuals experiencing health gains from a service among those who need the service, and distinguish this from other indicators along a coverage cascade that make quality adjustments. We propose a systematic approach for analysis along six steps in the cascade. Research to date shows substantial drops in effective delivery of care across these steps, but variation in methods limits comparability of the results. Advancement in coverage measurement will require standardisation of effective coverage terminology and improvements in data collection and methodological approaches.

Engagement of Men in Antenatal Care Services: Increased HIV Testing and Treatment Uptake in a Community Participatory Action Program in Mozambique.

Uptake of HIV testing and antiretroviral therapy (ART) services during antenatal care (ANC) in rural Mozambique is disappointing. To nurture supportive male engagement in ANC services, we partnered with traditional birth attendants and trained a new type of male-to-male community health agent, "Male Champions", who focused on counseling male partners to create new, male-friendly community norms around engagement in spousal/partner pregnancies. We assessed ANC service uptake using a pre-post intervention design. The intervention was associated with increases in: (1) uptake of provider-initiated counseling and testing among pregnant woman (81 vs. 92 %; p < 0.001); (2) male engagement in ANC (5 vs. 34 %; p < 0.001); and (3) uptake of ART (8 vs. 19 %; p < 0.001). When men accepted HIV testing, rates of testing rose markedly among pregnant women. With the challenges in scale-up of Option B+ in sub-Saharan Africa, similar interventions may increase testing and treatment acceptability during pregnancy.

Barriers to Male Involvement in Antenatal Care in Rural Mozambique.

Low rates of antenatal care (ANC) service uptake limit the potential impact of mother-to-child HIV-prevention strategies. Zambézia province, Mozambique, has one of the lowest proportions of ANC uptake among pregnant women in the country, despite the availability of free services. We sought to identify factors influencing ANC service uptake (including HIV counseling and testing) through qualitative methods. In addition, we encouraged discussion about strategies to improve uptake of services. We conducted 14 focus groups to explore community views on these topics. Based on thematic coding of discourse, two main themes emerged: (a) gender inequality in decision making and responsibility for pregnancy and (b) community beliefs that uptake of ANC services, particularly, if supported by a male partner, reflects a woman's HIV-positive status. Interventions to promote ANC uptake must work to shift cultural norms through male partner participation. Potential strategies to promote male engagement in ANC services are discussed.

Concordancia de los nuevos criterios ACR/EULAR y los ACR 1980 para la clasificación de la esclerosis sistémica / Concordance of the new ACR/EULAR criteria and the ACR 1980 for the classification of systemic sclerosis

Objetivo: Evaluar cumplimiento, y así mismo concordancia y discordancia de los criterios de clasificación de Esclerosis Sistémica (ES) ACR/EULAR 2013 y ACR 1980 en pacientes con diagnóstico clínico de la enfermedad. Método: Se incluyeron 169 pacientes con diagnóstico de Esclerosis Sistémica. Resultados: El 72,2 por ciento cumplía los criterios ACR 1980, y el 99,4 por ciento (168 pacientes) cumplía los criterios ACR/EULAR 2013. La concordancia absoluta de toda la muestra fue 72,7 por ciento, para el subtipo limitado 35,2 por ciento, y 100 por ciento el difuso. Se subanalizaron los pacientes con limitada que sólo cumplían criterios ACR/EULAR 2013, y se comparó con el resto de las limitadas. Los primeros presentaron en forma estadísticamente significativa menor esclerodactilia distal a MCF, menor presencia de úlceras digitales y pitting scars, menor afectación intersticial pulmonar, y mayor daño microvascular en la capilaroscopia. Conclusión: Los nuevos criterios de clasificación de Esclerosis Sistémica serían más adecuados para detectar esclerodermias limitadas, siendo dicho hallazgo estadísticamente significativo.

Objective: To evaluate the performance, and likewise concordance and discordance of the classification criteria of Systemic Sclerosis ACR/EULAR 2013 and ACR 1980 in a group of patients with clinical diagnosis of SSc. Methods: We enrolled 169 patients with diagnosis of Systemic Sclerosis. Results: 72.2 percent met the 1980 ACR criteria, and 99.4 percent met the ACR/EULAR 2013 criteria. The absolute agreement of the entire sample was 72.7 percent, 35.2 percent for the limited subtype, and 100 percent for the diffuse. Those patients with limited subtype who only met the ACR/EULAR 2013 criteria were compared with the rest of limited patients. The first group had statistically significantly lower sclerodactyly distal to MCF, lower presence of digital ulcers and pitting scars, less interstitial lung involvement, and greater abnormal nail fold capillaries. Conclusion: The new classification criteria for systemic sclerosis seem to be more suitable for detecting limited scleroderma. In the present study, statistically significant discrepancy was found in the limited subtype.

Frecuencia de úlceras digitales en esclerodermia / Digital ulcers frequency in scleroderma

Nuestro objetivo fue describir la frecuencia de úlceras digitales en una población de pacientes con Esclerosis Sistémica y comparar las características clínicas de los que desarrollaron úlceras de los que no lo hicieron. Se incluyeron en forma retrospectiva pacientes que cumplían criterios ACR para Esclerosis Sistémica. Se recolectaron datos demográficos, clínicos y serológicos de las historias clínicas. Se clasificó a los pacientes en dos grupos: un Grupo A con úlceras digitales y Grupo B aquellos pacientes sin antecedentes de úlceras digitales. Se compararon ambos grupos. Se estudiaron 60 pacientes con diagnóstico de Esclerosis Sistémica, 33% subtipo difuso, edad promedio al diagnóstico de 50,75 ± 14,75 años, el 15% (9 pacientes) eran de sexo masculino. La frecuencia de úlceras digitales fue de 33,33% (n=20). Los pacientes del grupo A eran más jóvenes al momento del diagnóstico (p=0,03) y tenían más tiempo de evolución de la enfermedad (pNS). En este grupo, fue más frecuente la forma difusa (p=0,002) y el fenómeno de Raynaud se inició a edades más precoces (p=0,006). Los pacientes del grupo A presentaron menor capacidad funcional, medida por HAQ score, y mayor frecuencia de patente tardía en la capilaroscopia, aunque no fue estadísticamente significativo. La totalidad de los pacientes de género masculino (n=9) tuvieron úlceras digitales (p <0,0001).Conclusión: El desarrollo de úlceras digitales en nuestro estudio se asoció a inicio más precoz de la enfermedad, a sexo masculino, a la forma difusa y a inicio más temprano de fenómeno de Raynaud.

The aim of this study was to describe digital ulcer frequency ina patient population with Systemic Sclerosis and to compare theclinical features of those who developed ulcers with those who didnot. Retrospectively, patients meeting ACR criteria for SystemicSclerosis were included. Demographic, clinical, and serologicalinformation was obtained from medical records. Patients wereclassified into two groups: Group A comprised patients with digitalulcers, while Group B included patients with no digital ulcers ontheir records. Findings for both groups were compared. We studied60 patients diagnosed with Systemic Sclerosis, 33% with diffusecutaneous subset, the mean age at the time of diagnosis was 50.75± 14.75 years, 15% (9 patients) were males. The frequency of digitalulcers was 33.33% (n=20). Group A patients were younger at thetime of diagnosis (p=0.03) and had longer time of evolution (pNS).The diffuse variant was more frequent in this group (p=0.002) andRaynaud’s phenomenon onset occurred at earlier ages (p=0.006).All male patients (n=9) entered into the study had digital ulcers (p<0.0001).Conclusions: In our study, development of digital ulcers wasassociated with an earlier onset of disease, males, diffuse subsetand an earlier onset of Raynaud’s phenomenon.

Count every newborn; a measurement improvement roadmap for coverage data.

BACKGROUND: The Every Newborn Action Plan (ENAP), launched in 2014, aims to end preventable newborn deaths and stillbirths, with national targets of ≤12 neonatal deaths per 1000 live births and ≤12 stillbirths per 1000 total births by 2030. This requires ambitious improvement of the data on care at birth and of small and sick newborns, particularly to track coverage, quality and equity. METHODS: In a multistage process, a matrix of 70 indicators were assessed by the Every Newborn steering group. Indicators were graded based on their availability and importance to ENAP, resulting in 10 core and 10 additional indicators. A consultation process was undertaken to assess the status of each ENAP core indicator definition, data availability and measurement feasibility. Coverage indicators for the specific ENAP treatment interventions were assigned task teams and given priority as they were identified as requiring the most technical work. Consultations were held throughout. RESULTS: ENAP published 10 core indicators plus 10 additional indicators. Three core impact indicators (neonatal mortality rate, maternal mortality ratio, stillbirth rate) are well defined, with future efforts needed to focus on improving data quantity and quality. Three core indicators on coverage of care for all mothers and newborns (intrapartum/skilled birth attendance, early postnatal care, essential newborn care) have defined contact points, but gaps exist in measuring content and quality of the interventions. Four core (antenatal corticosteroids, neonatal resuscitation, treatment of serious neonatal infections, kangaroo mother care) and one additional coverage indicator for newborns at risk or with complications (chlorhexidine cord cleansing) lack indicator definitions or data, especially for denominators (population in need). To address these gaps, feasible coverage indicator definitions are presented for validity testing. Measurable process indicators to help monitor health service readiness are also presented. A major measurement gap exists to monitor care of small and sick babies, yet signal functions could be tracked similarly to emergency obstetric care. CONCLUSIONS: The ENAP Measurement Improvement Roadmap (2015-2020) outlines tools to be developed (e.g., improved birth and death registration, audit, and minimum perinatal dataset) and actions to test, validate and institutionalise proposed coverage indicators. The roadmap presents a unique opportunity to strengthen routine health information systems, crosslinking these data with civil registration and vital statistics and population-based surveys. Real measurement change requires intentional transfer of leadership to countries with the greatest disease burden and will be achieved by working with centres of excellence and existing networks.

The Impact of Visual Aids and Enhanced Training on the Delivery of Positive Health, Dignity, and Prevention Messages to Adult Patients Living with HIV in Rural North Central Mozambique.

INTRODUCTION: Positive health, dignity, and prevention (PHDP) interventions target people living with HIV and AIDS (PLHIV) to promote well-being and prevent onward transmission. Concern that increased life expectancy and improved well-being would lead to increased risky sexual behaviour and subsequent HIV transmission motivated researchers to test novel strategies to support treatment adherence, encourage safer sex, STI treatment and partner testing, prevention of mother to child transmission, and support uptake of family planning. METHODS: We assessed the number and type of PHDP messages delivered to PLHIV before and after the implementation of an educational intervention for health providers combined with the distribution of visual job aids and monthly technical assistance. RESULTS: From April 21, 2013 to March 20, 2014, we documented 54,731 clinical encounters at three rural health centres in Zambézia province, Mozambique from 9,248 unique patients. The percentage of patients who received all seven PHDP messages during their last three visits was 1.9% pre-intervention vs. 13.6% post- intervention (p=<0.001). Younger patients (25 years vs. 35) and those with a recent HIV diagnosis (two weeks vs. two years) had higher odds of receiving any PHDP message (Odds Ratio [OR]: 1.22 and 2.79, respectively). Patients >59 days late collecting medications were not more likely to receive adherence messages than adherent patients (p=0.17). DISCUSSION: Targeting HIV prevention efforts to PLHIV is an effective HIV prevention approach to eliminate HIV transmission. Despite intensive training and support, PHDP message delivery remained unacceptably low in rural Mozambique. Patients at high risk for treatment abandonment were not more likely to be counselled about adherence and support measures, something that needs to be addressed. CONCLUSIONS: We need to develop novel strategies to motivate health care providers to deliver these messages more consistently to all patients and develop a system that assists counsellors and clinicians to quickly and effectively determine which messages should be delivered.

HIV testing service awareness and service uptake among female heads of household in rural Mozambique: results from a province-wide survey.

BACKGROUND: HIV voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) utilization remains low in many sub-Saharan African countries, particularly in remote rural settings. We sought to identify factors associated with service awareness and service uptake of VCT among female heads of household in rural Zambézia Province of north-central Mozambique which is characterized by high HIV prevalence (12.6%), poverty, and suboptimal health service access and utilization. METHODS: Our population-based survey of female heads of household was administered to a representative two-stage cluster sample using a sampling frame created for use on all national surveys and based on census results. The data served as a baseline measure for the Ogumaniha project initiated in 2009. Survey domains included poverty, health, education, income, HIV stigma, health service access, and empowerment. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression were used to describe service awareness and service uptake of VCT. RESULTS: Of 3708 women surveyed, 2546 (69%) were unaware of available VCT services. Among 1162 women who were aware of VCT, 673 (58%) reported no prior testing. In the VCT aware group, VCT awareness was associated with higher education (aOR = 2.88; 95% CI = 1.61, 5.16), higher income (aOR = 1.41, 95% CI = 1.06, 1.86), higher numeracy (aOR = 1.05, CI 1.03, 1.08), more children < age 5 in the home (aOR = 1.53; 95% CI = 1.07, 2.18), closer proximity to a health facility (aOR = 1.05; 95% CI = 1.03, 1.07), and mobile phone ownership (aOR = 1.37; 95% CI = 1.03, 1.84) (all p-values < 0.04). Having a higher HIV-associated stigma score was the factor most strongly associated with being less likely to test. (aOR = 0.41; 95% CI = 0.23, 0.71; p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Most women were unaware of available VCT services. Even women who were aware of services were unlikely to have been tested. Expanded VCT and social marketing of VCT are needed in rural Mozambique with special attention to issues of community-level stigma reduction.

Two-year death and loss to follow-up outcomes by source of referral to HIV care for HIV-infected patients initiating antiretroviral therapy in rural Mozambique.

We studied patient outcomes by type of referral site following 2 years of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) during scale-up from June 2006 to July 2011 in Mozambique's rural Zambézia Province. Loss to follow-up (LTFU) was defined as no contact within 60 days after scheduled medication pickup. Endpoints included LTFU, mortality, and combined mortality/LTFU; we used Kaplan-Meier and cumulative incidence estimates. The referral site was the source of HIV testing. We modeled 2-year outcomes using Cox regression stratified by district, adjusting for sociodemographics and health status. Of 7,615 HIV-infected patients ≥15 years starting cART, 61% were female and the median age was 30 years. Two-year LTFU was 38.1% (95% CI: 36.9-39.3%) and mortality was 14.2% (95% CI 13.2-15.2%). Patients arrived from voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) sites (51%), general outpatient clinics (21%), antenatal care (8%), inpatient care (3%), HIV/tuberculosis/laboratory facilities (<4%), or other sources of referral (14%). Compared with VCT, patients referred from inpatient, tuberculosis, or antenatal care had higher hazards of LTFU. Adjusted hazard ratios (AHR; 95% CI) for 2-year mortality by referral site (VCT as referent) were inpatient 1.87 (1.36-2.58), outpatient 1.44 (1.11-1.85), and antenatal care 0.69 (0.43-1.11) and for mortality/LTFU were inpatient 1.60 (1.34-1.91), outpatient 1.17 (1.02-1.33), tuberculosis care 1.38 (1.08-1.75), and antenatal care 1.24 (1.06-1.44). That source of referral was associated with mortality/LTFU after adjusting for patient characteristics at cART initiation suggests that (1) additional unmeasured factors are influential, and (2) retention programs may benefit from targeting patient populations based on source of referral with focused counseling and/or social support.

Patient loss to follow-up before antiretroviral therapy initiation in rural Mozambique.

Within Mozambique's current HIV care system, there are numerous opportunities for a person to become lost to follow-up (LTFU) prior to initiating antiretroviral therapy (pre-ART). We explored pre-ART LTFU in Zambézia province utilizing quantitative and qualitative methods. Patients were deemed LTFU if they were more than 60 days late for either a scheduled appointment or a CD4+ cell count blood draw, according to national guidelines. Among 13,968 adult patients registered for care, 211 (1.8 %) died, one transferred, 2,196 (15.7 %) initiated ART, and 9,195 (65.8 %) were LTFU during the first year. Being male, younger, less educated, and/or having no home electricity were associated with LTFU. Qualitative interviews revealed that poor clinical care, logistics and competing priorities contribute to attrition. In addition, many expressed fears of stigma and/or rejection by family or community members because they were HIV-infected. At 66 %, pre-ART LTFU in Zambézia, Mozambique is a significant problem. This study highlights characteristics of lost patients and discusses barriers requiring consideration to improve retention.

Poor clinical outcomes for HIV infected children on antiretroviral therapy in rural Mozambique: need for program quality improvement and community engagement.

INTRODUCTION: Residents of Zambézia Province, Mozambique live from rural subsistence farming and fishing. The 2009 provincial HIV prevalence for adults 15-49 years was 12.6%, higher among women (15.3%) than men (8.9%). We reviewed clinical data to assess outcomes for HIV-infected children on combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) in a highly resource-limited setting. METHODS: We studied rates of 2-year mortality and loss to follow-up (LTFU) for children <15 years of age initiating cART between June 2006-July 2011 in 10 rural districts. National guidelines define LTFU as >60 days following last-scheduled medication pickup. Kaplan-Meier estimates to compute mortality assumed non-informative censoring. Cumulative LTFU incidence calculations treated death as a competing risk. RESULTS: Of 753 children, 29.0% (95% CI: 24.5, 33.2) were confirmed dead by 2 years and 39.0% (95% CI: 34.8, 42.9) were LTFU with unknown clinical outcomes. The cohort mortality rate was 8.4% (95% CI: 6.3, 10.4) after 90 days on cART and 19.2% (95% CI: 16.0, 22.3) after 365 days. Higher hemoglobin at cART initiation was associated with being alive and on cART at 2 years (alive: 9.3 g/dL vs. dead or LTFU: 8.3-8.4 g/dL, p<0.01). Cotrimoxazole use within 90 days of ART initiation was associated with improved 2-year outcomes Treatment was initiated late (WHO stage III/IV) among 48% of the children with WHO stage recorded in their records. Marked heterogeneity in outcomes by district was noted (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: We found poor clinical and programmatic outcomes among children taking cART in rural Mozambique. Expanded testing, early infant diagnosis, counseling/support services, case finding, and outreach are insufficiently implemented. Our quality improvement efforts seek to better link pregnancy and HIV services, expand coverage and timeliness of infant diagnosis and treatment, and increase follow-up and adherence.

Negative labeling and social exclusion of people living with human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome in the antiretroviral therapy era: insight from attitudes and behavioral intentions of female heads of households in Zambézia Province, Mozambique.

In the age of antiretroviral therapy (ART), unraveling specific aspects of stigma that impede uptake and adherence to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) services and the complex intersections among them might enhance the efficacy of stigma-reduction interventions targeted at the general public. Few studies have described community stigma in high HIV prevalence regions of Mozambique where program scale-up has been concentrated, but fear of stigma persists as a barrier to HIV service uptake. Principal components analysis of attitudinal data from 3749 female heads of households surveyed in Zambézia Province was used to examine patterns of agreement with stigmatizing attitudes and behavior toward people living with HIV. Inferences were based on comparison of factor loadings and commonality estimates. Construct validity was established through correlations with levels of knowledge about HIV transmission and consistency with the labeling theory of stigma. Two unique domains of community stigma were observed: negative labeling and devaluation (NLD, α = 0.74) and social exclusion (SoE, α = 0.73). NLD is primarily an attitudinal construct, while SoE captures behavioral intent. About one-third of the respondents scored in the upper tertile of the NLD stigma scale (scale: 0-100 stigma points) and the equivalent was 41.3% in the SoE stigma scale. Consistent with literature, NLD and SoE stigma scores were inversely correlated with HIV transmission route knowledge. In item level analysis, fear of being labeled a prostitute/immoral and of negative family affect defined the nature of stigma in this sample. Thus, despite ART scale-up and community education about HIV/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), NLD and SoE characterized the community stigma of HIV in this setting. Follow-up studies could compare the impact of these stigma domains on HIV services uptake, in order to inform domain-focused stigma-reduction interventions.

Community stigma endorsement and voluntary counseling and testing behavior and attitudes among female heads of household in Zambézia Province, Mozambique.

BACKGROUND: Some aspects of HIV-related stigma have been shown to be a barrier to HIV services uptake and adherence to antiretroviral treatment (ART). Distinguishing which domains of stigma impact HIV services uptake can enhance the efficacy and efficiency of stigma-reduction interventions. METHODS: The relationships between use of voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) services and two domains of community stigma identified through factor analysis, negative labeling/devaluation and social exclusion, were investigated among 3749 female heads of household. Data were from a general household survey conducted in rural Mozambique. Multivariable logistic regression outcomes were: lifetime VCT use, past-6-months VCT use and VCT endorsement. RESULTS: Thirteen percent (13%) of the participants reported lifetime VCT use, 10% reported past-6-months VCT use and 63% endorsed VCT. A 25-point decrease (from 50 to 25) in the score for negative labeling and devaluation stigma was associated with increased lifetime VCT use (adjusted OR: 1.6, 95% CI: 1.1-2.3) and past-6-months VCT use (adjusted OR: 1.6, 95% CI: 1.1-2.4). A decrease from 50 to 25-points in the score for social exclusion stigma was associated with 1.5 and 1.3-fold increase in odds for past-6-months VCT use and endorsing VCT use, respectively (p < 0.001 for both). Compared with never-testers, considerably high endorsement of VCT use was observed among testers who did not receive HIV test results (adjusted OR: 2.7, 95% CI: 1.6-4.6) and much higher among testers who received results (adjusted OR: 7.3, 95% CI: 4.9-11.0). Distance from health facilities was associated with lower VCT use, but not lower endorsement of VCT. CONCLUSIONS: VCT use and endorsement might differ by domains of stigma held by individuals in the community. Greater uptake and favorable disposition towards use of VCT services in rural settings might be achieved by addressing stigma via domain-specific interventions and by improving the proximity of services and the dissemination of HIV test results.