Nasopharyngeal colonization by Streptococcus pneumoniae in children and adults before the introduction of the 10-valent conjugate vaccine, Paraguay.

Streptococcus pneumoniae is a cause of invasive diseases such as pneumonia, meningitis, and other serious infections among children and adults in Paraguay. This study was conducted to establish S. pneumoniae baseline prevalence, serotype distribution, and antibiotic resistance patterns in healthy children aged 2 to 59 months and adults ≥60 years of age prior to the introduction of PCV10 in the national childhood immunization program in Paraguay. Between April and July 2012, a total of 1444 nasopharyngeal swabs were collected, 718 from children aged 2 to 59 months and 726 from adults ≥60 years of age. The pneumococcal isolation, serotyping, and antibiotic susceptibility testing were performed using standard tests. Pneumococcal colonization prevalence was 34.1% (245/718) in children and 3.3% (24/726) in adults. The most frequent pneumococcal vaccine-types (VT) detected in the children were 6B (42/245), 19F (32/245), 14 (17/245), and 23F (20/245). Carriage prevalence with PCV10 serotypes was 50.6% (124/245) and PCV13 was 59.5% (146/245). Among colonized adults, prevalence of PCV10 and PCV13 serotypes were 29.1% (7/24) and 41.6% (10/24), respectively. Colonized children were more likely to share a bedroom, have a history of respiratory infection or pneumococcal infection compared to non-colonized children. no associations were found in adults. However, no significant associations were found in children and neither in adults. Vaccine-type pneumococcal colonization was highly prevalent in children and rare in adults in Paraguay prior to vaccine introduction, supporting the introduction of PCV10 in the country in 2012. These data will be useful to evaluate the impact of PCV introduction in the country.

[Impact of COVID-19 on the provision of essential health services in Paraguay]. / Impacto de la COVID-19 en la prestación de los servicios de salud esenciales en Paraguay.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the magnitude of the impact of the current COVID-19 pandemic on the delivery of essential health services at all levels of care in Paraguay. METHODS: Descriptive and cross-sectional observational research. Indicators of services of the Ministry of Public Health and Social Welfare monitored in the country were analyzed. To compare the behavior of these indicators over time, data from the first four months (January-April) of 2017-2020 were used. To calculate the impact on each indicator, the same four-month period of 2019 and 2020 was compared, and the percentages of increase or decrease between these years were calculated. RESULTS: Since 2017, the number of visits has increased for all indicators; however, in 2020 visits related to almost all indicators have decreased to a variable degree. The most affected indicators (more than 30% decrease) were visits for digestive, hemolymphopoietic and ocular conditions. The number of visits related to the indicators control of diabetes mellitus and health control in children under 5 years increased 10.5% and 3.9%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Health care related to essential services has been affected by the pandemic with a reduction of visits for non-COVID-19 causes, which should serve as an alert for the health system in order not to lose the ground gained on this front.

Impacto de la COVID-19 en la prestación de los servicios de salud esenciales en Paraguay

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Determinar la magnitud del impacto de la actual pandemia de enfermedad por el nuevo coronavirus (COVID-19) en la prestación de servicios de salud esenciales en todos los niveles de atención de Paraguay. Métodos. Investigación observacional descriptiva y transversal. Se utilizaron indicadores de servicios del Ministerio de Salud Pública y Bienestar Social que se monitorean en el país. Para comparar el comportamiento de dichos indicadores en el tiempo, se utilizaron datos del primer cuatrimestre (enero-abril) de los años 2017-2020. Para el cálculo del impacto en cada indicador se comparó el mismo cuatrimestre de 2019 y de 2020, y se calcularon los porcentajes de incremento o decremento entre estos años. Resultados. Desde el año 2017, se ha incrementado el número de consultas en todos los indicadores; sin embargo, en 2020 casi todos han disminuido en grado variable. Los más afectados (más de 30% de reducción) son la atención por alteraciones digestivas, hemolinfopoyéticas y oculares. Para los indicadores control de diabetes mellitus y control de salud en menores de 5años se observó un incremento del número de consultas de 10,5% y 3,9%, respectivamente. Conclusiones. La atención sanitaria en servicios esenciales se ha visto afectada por la pandemia debido a la reducción del número de consultas por causas ajenas a la COVID-19, lo que debe servir de alerta el sistema de salud a fin no perder el terreno ganado en este frente.

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To determine the magnitude of the impact of the current COVID-19 pandemic on the delivery of essential health services at all levels of care in Paraguay. Methods. Descriptive and cross-sectional observational research. Indicators of services of the Ministry of Public Health and Social Welfare monitored in the country were analyzed. To compare the behavior of these indicators over time, data from the first four months (January-April) of 2017-2020 were used. To calculate the impact on each indicator, the same four-month period of 2019 and 2020 was compared, and the percentages of increase or decrease between these years were calculated. Results. Since 2017, the number of visits has increased for all indicators; however, in 2020 visits related to almost all indicators have decreased to a variable degree. The most affected indicators (more than 30% decrease) were visits for digestive, hemolymphopoietic and ocular conditions. The number of visits related to the indicators control of diabetes mellitus and health control in children under 5 years increased 10.5% and 3.9%, respectively. Conclusions. Health care related to essential services has been affected by the pandemic with a reduction of visits for non-COVID-19 causes, which should serve as an alert for the health system in order not to lose the ground gained on this front.

[Health and social inequalities in maternal and child health in Paraguay]. / Desigualdades sanitarias y sociales en la salud materna y del niño en Paraguay.

OBJECTIVE: To describe health and social inequalities in maternal and child health indicators defined in Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 3.1 and SDG 3.2 targets based on administrative data among the departments of Paraguay in 2017. METHODS: Quantitative descriptive study with ecological design. Simple gap measures and complex gradient measures based on the adjustment of negative binomial and logistic regression models were used. RESULTS: Fifty percent of Paraguay's departments have estimated maternal mortality ratio (MMR) values higher than the national value. The percentage of births attended by a qualified professional in the country is 98.1%, with a range between 82.4% and 99.9%. In 13 of 18 departments, under-five mortality rate (U5MR) is higher than the national average, ranging from 4.2 to 49.2 deaths per 1 000 live births. Neonatal mortality rates (NMR) in the departments vary from 2.6 to 45.1 deaths per 1 000 live births. There are major health and social inequalities in the MMR, U5MR and NMR between the departments. There are no high inequalities in the percentage of births attended by a qualified professional between the departments. CONCLUSIONS: Paraguay needs to make significant efforts to reduce the health and social inequalities that exist in the MMR, U5MR and NMR between departments. Numerical targets must be established to improve national values and reduce inequalities in these indicators, which will allow for accountability on the commitment to "leave no one behind" established in the SDG, and will help generate strategies to improve the health of women and children in Paraguay.

Desigualdades sanitarias y sociales en la salud materna y del niño en Paraguay

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Describir las desigualdades sanitarias y sociales en indicadores de salud materna y del niño definidos en las metas del Objetivo de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) 3.1 y ODS 3.2 a partir de datos administrativos, entre los departamentos de Paraguay en 2017. Métodos. Diseño ecológico de carácter descriptivo cuantitativo. Se utilizaron medidas simples de brechas y medidas complejas de gradiente basadas en el ajuste de modelos de regresión binomial negativo y logístico. Resultados. Cincuenta por ciento de los departamentos de Paraguay tienen valores estimados de razón de mortalidad materna (RMM) mayores que el valor nacional. El porcentaje de partos atendidos por profesional calificado en el país alcanza 98,1% con valores que fluctúan entre 82,4% y 99,9%. Hay 13 de 18 departamentos con valores de la tasa de mortalidad en menores de 5 años (TMM5) mayores que el promedio nacional, con un rango entre 4,2 y 49,2 muertes por cada 1 000 nacidos vivos. Los valores de la tasa de mortalidad neonatal (TMN) en los departamentos varían entre 2,6 y 45,1 muertes por cada 1 000 nacidos vivos. Existen grandes desigualdades sanitarias y sociales en la RMM, la TMM5 y la TMN entre los departamentos. No se detectan desigualdades elevadas en el porcentaje de partos atendidos por profesional calificado entre los departamentos. Conclusiones. Paraguay debe hacer esfuerzos importantes para disminuir las desigualdades sanitarias y sociales que existen en la RMM, la TMM5 y la TNN entre los departamentos. Se deben establecer metas numéricas de mejoría de los valores nacionales y reducción de las desigualdades en estos indicadores, lo cual permitirá rendir cuentas sobre el compromiso de “no dejar a nadie atrás” establecido en los ODS, y ayudará a generar estrategias que permitan mejorar la salud de la mujer y el niño en Paraguay.

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To describe health and social inequalities in maternal and child health indicators defined in Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 3.1 and SDG 3.2 targets based on administrative data among the departments of Paraguay in 2017. Methods. Quantitative descriptive study with ecological design. Simple gap measures and complex gradient measures based on the adjustment of negative binomial and logistic regression models were used. Results. Fifty percent of Paraguay’s departments have estimated maternal mortality ratio (MMR) values higher than the national value. The percentage of births attended by a qualified professional in the country is 98.1%, with a range between 82.4% and 99.9%. In 13 of 18 departments, under-five mortality rate (U5MR) is higher than the national average, ranging from 4.2 to 49.2 deaths per 1 000 live births. Neonatal mortality rates (NMR) in the departments vary from 2.6 to 45.1 deaths per 1 000 live births. There are major health and social inequalities in the MMR, U5MR and NMR between the departments. There are no high inequalities in the percentage of births attended by a qualified professional between the departments. Conclusions. Paraguay needs to make significant efforts to reduce the health and social inequalities that exist in the MMR, U5MR and NMR between departments. Numerical targets must be established to improve national values and reduce inequalities in these indicators, which will allow for accountability on the commitment to “leave no one behind” established in the SDG, and will help generate strategies to improve the health of women and children in Paraguay.

[Primary health care strategy and its impact on avoidable hospitalizations for ambulatory care-sensitive conditions, Paraguay, 2000-2017Estratégia de atenção primária à saúde e seu impacto nas internações hospitalares evitáveis por causas sensíveis à atenção ambulatorial, Paraguai, 2000-2017]. / Estrategia de atención primaria de salud y su impacto en las hospitalizaciones evitables por condiciones sensibles a la atención ambulatoria, Paraguay, 2000-2017.

OBJECTIVE: Explore the effect of the implementation and strengthening of the primary care strategy (PHC) on hospitalizations for ambulatory care-sensitive conditions (HACSC). METHODS: Descriptive cross-sectional observational study that considered the data from public hospital admissions records for the entire country for the period 2000-2017. The starting point of the PHC strategy is considered to be 2009. The diagnoses proposed by the Pan American Health Organization/World Health Organization were used in defining the HACSC diagnoses. The analysis of HACSC behavior considered two stages: 2000-2008 and 2009-2017. RESULTS: HACSC trended downward, with a difference of 6.75% between the final years of each stage. The greater the PHC coverage, the larger the reduction. The leading causes of HACSC were pneumonia and acute diarrheal disease. Admissions for chronic diseases largely fell, while admissions for infectious diseases rose. CONCLUSIONS: The degree of population coverage and access to family health units can limit the impact of PHC on HACSC. A reduction in HACSC was confirmed after PHC implementation in Paraguay. The results for admissions for chronic diseases are better than those for infectious diseases.

OBJETIVO: Explorar a influência da implementação e fortalecimento da estratégia de atenção primária à saúde (APS) nas internações hospitalares por causas sensíveis à atenção ambulatorial. MÉTODOS: Estudo observacional descritivo transversal realizado com dados de registros de internações em hospitais públicos de todo o país no período entre 2000 e 2017. O ano de 2009 é considerado o ponto inicial da estratégia de APS no Paraguai. Os diagnósticos das internações hospitalares por causas sensíveis à atenção ambulatorial foram definidos segundo os critérios propostos pela Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde/Organização Mundial da Saúde (OPAS/OMS). A análise foi realizada em duas fases distintas: 2000­2008 e 2009­2017. RESULTADOS: Verificou-se uma tendência de redução das internações hospitalares por causas sensíveis à atenção ambulatorial, com uma diferença de 6,75% entre os anos finais de cada fase. A redução foi maior à medida que se ampliou a cobertura de APS. As principais causas de internações hospitalares foram pneumonia e doença diarreica aguda. Houve redução das internações por doenças crônicas na sua maioria e, em contraste, houve aumento das internações por doenças infecciosas. CONCLUSÕES: A cobertura e o acesso da população a unidades de saúde da família são fatores limitantes ao impacto da APS nas internações hospitalares por causas sensíveis à atenção ambulatorial. Verifica-se uma redução das internações hospitalares após a implementação da APS no Paraguai. Os resultados são melhores para internações por doenças crônicas em comparação às internações por doenças infecciosas.

Estrategia de atención primaria de salud y su impacto en las hospitalizaciones evitables por condiciones sensibles a la atención ambulatoria, Paraguay, 2000-2017

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Explorar la influencia que ha tenido la implementación y fortalecimiento de la estrategia de atención primaria (APS) sobre las hospitalizaciones por condiciones sensibles al cuidado ambulatorio (HCSCA). Métodos. Estudio observacional descriptivo y transversal, que consideró datos correspondientes a los registros de internaciones de hospitales públicos de todo el país en el período 2000-2017. Se considera el año 2009 como punto de inicio de la estrategia de APS. Para definir los diagnósticos de las HCSCA se utilizaron los propuestos por la Organización Panamericana de la Salud/Organización Mundial de la Salud. Se realizó el análisis de su comportamiento considerando dos etapas: 2000-2008 y 2009-2017. Resultados. Las HCSCA mostraron una tendencia a la disminución, se halló una diferencia de 6,75% entre los años finales de cada etapa. La disminución fue mayor en la medida que se amplió la cobertura de APS. Las principales causas de HCSCA fueron la neumonía y la enfermedad diarreica aguda. Las internaciones por enfermedades crónicas disminuyeron en su mayoría: por el contrario, los ingresos por enfermedades infecciosas aumentaron. Conclusiones. La cobertura y acceso poblacional con unidades de salud familiar puede limitar el impacto de la APS en las HCSCA. Se verifica una disminución de las HCSCA luego de la implementación de la APS en Paraguay. Las internaciones por enfermedades crónicas muestran mejor resultado que las internaciones por enfermedades infecciosas.

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. Explore the effect of the implementation and strengthening of the primary care strategy (PHC) on hospitalizations for ambulatory care-sensitive conditions (HACSC). Methods. Descriptive cross-sectional observational study that considered the data from public hospital admissions records for the entire country for the period 2000-2017. The starting point of the PHC strategy is considered to be 2009. The diagnoses proposed by the Pan American Health Organization/World Health Organization were used in defining the HACSC diagnoses. The analysis of HACSC behavior considered two stages: 2000-2008 and 2009-2017. Results. HACSC trended downward, with a difference of 6.75% between the final years of each stage. The greater the PHC coverage, the larger the reduction. The leading causes of HACSC were pneumonia and acute diarrheal disease. Admissions for chronic diseases largely fell, while admissions for infectious diseases rose. Conclusions. The degree of population coverage and access to family health units can limit the impact of PHC on HACSC. A reduction in HACSC was confirmed after PHC implementation in Paraguay. The results for admissions for chronic diseases are better than those for infectious diseases.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Explorar a influência da implementação e fortalecimento da estratégia de atenção primária à saúde (APS) nas internações hospitalares por causas sensíveis à atenção ambulatorial. Métodos. Estudo observacional descritivo transversal realizado com dados de registros de internações em hospitais públicos de todo o país no período entre 2000 e 2017. O ano de 2009 é considerado o ponto inicial da estratégia de APS no Paraguai. Os diagnósticos das internações hospitalares por causas sensíveis à atenção ambulatorial foram definidos segundo os critérios propostos pela Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde/Organização Mundial da Saúde (OPAS/OMS). A análise foi realizada em duas fases distintas: 2000– 2008 e 2009–2017. Resultados. Verificou-se uma tendência de redução das internações hospitalares por causas sensíveis à atenção ambulatorial, com uma diferença de 6,75% entre os anos finais de cada fase. A redução foi maior à medida que se ampliou a cobertura de APS. As principais causas de internações hospitalares foram pneumonia e doença diarreica aguda. Houve redução das internações por doenças crônicas na sua maioria e, em contraste, houve aumento das internações por doenças infecciosas. Conclusões. A cobertura e o acesso da população a unidades de saúde da família são fatores limitantes ao impacto da APS nas internações hospitalares por causas sensíveis à atenção ambulatorial. Verifica-se uma redução das internações hospitalares após a implementação da APS no Paraguai. Os resultados são melhores para internações por doenças crônicas em comparação às internações por doenças infecciosas.