A new mountain pitviper of the genus Ovophis Burger in Hoge & Romano-Hoge, 1981 (Serpentes, Viperidae) from Yunnan, China.

Based on a molecular phylogenetic analysis and morphological comparison, a new species of mountain pitviper, Ovophisjenkinsi sp. nov., is described. The new species was collected in Yingjiang County, Yunnan Province, China. It can be distinguished from congeneric species by the following characters: (1) internasals in contact or separated by one small scale; (2) second supralabial entire and bordering the loreal pit; (3) dorsal scales in 23 (25)-21 (23, 25)-19 (17, 21) rows; (4) 134-142 ventrals; (5) 40-52 pairs of subcaudals; (6) third supralabial larger than fourth in all examined specimens of Ovophisjenkinsi sp. nov.; (7) deep orange-brown or dark brownish-grey markings on dorsal head surface; (8) background color of dorsal surface deep orange-brown or dark brownish-grey; (9) both sides of dorsum display dark brown trapezoidal patches; (10) scattered small white spots on dorsal surface of tail.

A sheep in wolf's clothing: Elaphe xiphodonta sp. nov. (Squamata, Colubridae) and its possible mimicry to Protobothrops jerdonii.

Based on combined morphological and osteological characters and molecular phylogenetics, we describe a new species of the genus Elaphe that was discovered from the south slope of the Qinling Mountains, Shaanxi, China, namely Elaphe xiphodonta sp. nov. It is distinguished from the other congeners by a combination of the following characters: dorsal scales in 21-21-17 rows, the medial 11 rows keeled; 202-204 ventral scales, 67-68 subcaudals; two preoculars (including one subpreocular); two postoculars; two anterior temporals, three posterior temporals; reduced numbers of maxillary teeth (9+2) and dentary teeth (12); sharp cutting edges on the posterior or posterolateral surface of the rear maxillary teeth and dentary teeth; dorsal head yellow, three distinct markings on the head and neck; a distinct black labial spot present in supralabials; dorsum yellow, 46-49 complete (or incomplete) large black-edged reddish brown blotches on the body and 12-19 on the tail, two rows of smaller blotches on each ventrolateral side; ventral scales yellow with mottled irregular black blotches, a few irregular small red spots dispersed on the middle of the ventral. Based on molecular phylogenetic analyses, the new species forms the sister taxon to E. zoigeensis. The discovery of this new species increases the number of the recognized species in the genus Elaphe to 17.

Phylogeographic study of the Bufo gargarizans species complex, with emphasis on Northeast Asia.

We conduct a phylogeographic and population genetic study of the Asiatic toad (Bufo gargarizans) to understand its evolutionary history, and the influence of geology and climate. A total of 292 individuals from 94 locations were genotyped for two mitochondrial loci (cytb, ND2) and five nuclear introns (Sox9-2, Rho-3, CCNB2-3, UCH-2, and DBI-2), and we performed a suite of phylogenetic, population genetic, and divergence dating analyses. The phylogenetic trees constructed using mitochondrial loci inferred B. gargarizans being divided into two major groups: China mainland and Northeast Asia (Northeast China, Russia, and Korean Peninsula). As with previous studies of this species, we recover population genetic structure not tied to geographic region. Additionally, we discover a new genetic clade restricted to Northeast Asia that points towards the Korean Peninsula being a glacial refugium during the Pleistocene. The weak phylogeographic pattern of B. gargarizans is likely the result of multiple biological, anthropogenic, and historical factors - robust dispersal abilities as a consequence of physiological adaptations, human translocation, geologic activity, and glacial cycles of the Pleistocene. We highlight the complex geologic and climatic history of Northeast Asia and encourage further research to understand its impact on the biodiversity in the region.

A definition of the Goniurosaurus yingdeensis group (Squamata, Eublepharidae) with the description of a new species.

A definition of the Goniurosaurus yingdeensis group is presented in this study, on the basis of morphological and phylogenetic analyses based on a series of additional specimens. Moreover, a new species of this group, Goniurosaurus varius sp. nov., is proposed for northern Guangdong Province, China. The new species can be distinguished from the other two congeners of this group by the following unique characters: one or two internasals; enlarged supraorbital tubercles absent; paravertebral tubercles between limb insertions 27-29; dorsal tubercle rows at midbody 21-24; ten precloacal pores in males and absent in females; body bands with black spots; iris orange-red.

A new species of the Rana japonica group (Anura, Ranidae, Rana) from China, with a taxonomic proposal for the R. johnsi group.

Rana jiulingensis sp. nov., a new species from Hunan and Jiangxi, southeastern China, is described. The new species is assigned to the R. japonica group. The clade comprising R. jiulingensis sp. nov. and R. dabieshanensis from Anhui is the sister taxon of R. omeimontis from Sichuan. Rana jiulingensis sp. nov. can be distinguished by the significant divergences in the 16S and COI genes, and the combination of following morphological characters: body size medium, SVL 48.3-57.8 mm in adult males and 48.2-57.5 mm in adult females; dorsolateral fold straight; digits without circummarginal grooves; dorsal skin smooth; tibio-tarsal articulation reaching forward beyond the tip of snout; heels overlapping; webbing formula of toes: I 1⅓ - 2 II 1⅓ - 2⅓ III 1½ - 2⅔ IV 3 - 1⅓ V; absence of vocal sacs in males; and presence of creamy white nuptial pad with tiny hoar spines on the finger I and reddish tubercles on loreal and temporal regions in breeding males. Furthermore, based on our results and the previous literature, R. zhengi is synonymized with R. sangzhiensis, and a new species group, the Rana johnsi group, is proposed for the R. johnsi and R. sangzhiensis. Currently, the Rana contains 41 recognized species, and the phylogenetic placements of several species remain unresolved.

Comprehensive approaches reveal three cryptic species of genus Nidirana (Anura, Ranidae) from China.

Three cryptic species, which were previously reported as Nidirana adenopleura, are revealed on the basis of comprehensive approaches. Nidirana guangdongensis Lyu, Wan, and YY Wang, sp. nov. is distributed in Nanling Mountains and southern Luoxiao Mountains, Nidirana mangveni Lyu, Qi, and YY Wang, sp. nov. is known from northern Zhejiang, and Nidirana xiangica Lyu and YY Wang, sp. nov. occurs in Xiangjiang River Basin, while the true Nidirana adenopleura is designated from Taiwan Island, northern Fujian, southern Zhejiang, and central Jiangxi. These three new species can be distinguished from all congeners by significant divergences in the mitochondrial 16S and CO1 genes, differences in advertisement calls, and the combination of multiple characteristics. This work indicates that the current records of Nidirana adenopleura should be of a species complex composed of multiple species and have clarified the true identity of N. adenopleura.

Diversity and phylogeography of Northeast Asian brown frogs allied to Rana dybowskii (Anura, Ranidae).

We investigated the species diversity and phylogeography of the Northeast Asian brown frogs allied to Rana dybowskii (the R. dybowskii species complex: R. dybowskii, R. pirica, and R. uenoi) using four mitochondrial and three nuclear loci. Phylogenetic analyses confirmed the existence of three distinct species in this complex; using extensive molecular data, we confirm the validity of Rana uenoi recognized as a distinct species, and infer R. dybowskii and R. pirica to be sister species. Also, we included populations from previously unsampled regions in Northeast China, and identified them to be R. dybowskii. While many species in Northeast Asia diverged due to Pleistocene glaciation, divergence-dating analyses inferred older, Miocene speciation in the R. dybowskii species complex. Ancestral area reconstruction identified the orogenic movement of the Changbai Mountain Range and the opening of the Sea of Japan/East Sea being major events influencing allopatric speciation.

A new species of the genus Scutiger (Anura: Megophryidae) from Medog of southeastern Tibet, China.

A new species of Scutiger Theobald, 1868 is described from Medog, southeastern Tibet, China, based on morphological and molecular data. The new species was previously identified as Scutiger nyingchiensis, but it can be differentiated from the latter and all other congeners by the following combination of characters: (1) medium adult body size, SVL 50.5-55.6 mm in males and 53.8-57.2 mm in females; (2) maxillary teeth absent; (3) web rudimentary between toes; (4) prominent, conical-shaped tubercles on dorsal and lateral surfaces of body and limbs; (5) tubercles covered by black spines in both sexes in breeding condition; (6) a pair of pectoral glands and a pair of axillary glands present and covered by black spines in males in breeding condition, width of axillary gland less than 50% of pectoral gland; (7) nuptial spines present on dorsal surface of first and second fingers, and inner side of third finger in males in breeding condition; (8) spines absent on the abdominal region; (9) vocal sac absent. In addition, the distribution and conservation status of the new species are also discussed.

Influence of geology and human activity on the genetic structure and demography of the Oriental fire-bellied toad (Bombina orientalis).

The Oriental fire-bellied toad (Bombina orientalis) is a commonly used study organism, but knowledge of its evolutionary history is incomplete. We analyze sequence data from four genetic markers (mtDNA genes encoding cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, cytochrome b, and 12S-16S rRNA; nuDNA gene encoding recombination activating gene 2) from 188 individuals across its range in Northeast Asia to elucidate phylogeographic patterns and to identify the historic events that shaped its evolutionary history. Although morphologically similar across its range, B. orientalis exhibits phylogeographic structure, which we infer was shaped by geologic, climatic, and anthropogenic events. Phylogenetic and divergence-dating analyses recover four genetically distinct groups of B. orientalis: Lineage 1-Shandong Province and Beijing (China); Lineage 2-Bukhan Mountain (Korea); Lineage 3-Russia, Northeast China, and northern South Korea; and Lineage 4-South Korea. Lineage 2 was previously unknown. Additionally, we discover an area of secondary contact on the Korean Peninsula, and infer a single dispersal event as the origin of the insular Jeju population. Skyline plots estimate different population histories for the four lineages: Lineages 1 and 2 experienced population decreases, Lineage 3 remained stable, while Lineage 4 experienced a sharp increase during the Holocene. The timing of the population expansion of Lineage 4 coincides with the advent of rice cultivation, which may have facilitated the increase in population size by providing additional breeding habitat.

Implications of flexible-shelled eggs in a Cretaceous choristoderan reptile.

Flexible, or soft-shelled, eggs are almost unknown in the fossil record, leaving large gaps in our knowledge of the reproductive biology of many tetrapod clades. Here, we report two flexible-shelled eggs of the hyphalosaurid choristodere Hyphalosaurus baitaigouensis from the Early Cretaceous of China, one containing an embryo and the second associated with a neonate. Choristoderes are an enigmatic group of aquatic reptiles that survived the K-T extinction but died out in the Miocene. Hyphalosaurids, a specialized clade of Choristodera, resemble miniature plesiosaurs and are considered to be primarily aquatic in habit. Scanning electron microscopy of samples from the eggs reveals a thin, non-columnar external mineralized layer characterized by rounded nodes and tentatively identified poorly structured irregular pores, with an underlying amorphous layer presumably representing decomposed protein fibrils. While the relationships of Choristodera remain controversial, eggshell microstructure more closely resembles that of Lepidosauromorpha (the lineage including lizards) as opposed to that of Archosauromorpha (the lineage including birds and crocodiles).

Phylogeny of the Asian spiny frog tribe Paini (Family Dicroglossidae) sensu Dubois.

The anuran tribe Paini, family Dicroglossidae, is known in this group only from Asia. The phylogenetic relationships and often the taxonomic recognition of species are controversial. In order to stabilize the classification, we used approximately 2100 bp of nuclear (rhodopsin, tyrosinase) and mitochondrial (12S, 16S rRNA) DNA sequence data to infer the phylogenetic relationships of these frogs. Phylogenetic trees reconstructed using Bayesian inference and maximum parsimony methods supported a monophyletic tribe Paini. Two distinct groups (I,II) were recovered with the mtDNA alone and the total concatenated data (mtDNA+nuDNA). The recognition of two genera, Quasipaa and Nanorana, was supported. Group I, Quasipaa, is widespread east of the Hengduan Mountain Ranges and consists of taxa from relatively low elevations in southern China, Vietnam and Laos. Group II, Nanorana, contains a mix of species occurring from high to low elevation predominantly in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and Hengduan Mountain Ranges. The occurrence of frogs at high elevations appears to be a derived ecological condition. The composition of some major species groups based on morphological characteristics strongly conflicts with the molecular analysis. Some possible cryptic species are indicated by the molecular analyses. The incorporation of genetic data from type localities helped to resolve some of the taxonomic problems, although further combined analyses of morphological data from type specimens are required. The two nuDNA gene segments proved to be very informative for resolving higher phylogenetic relationships and more nuclear data should be explored to be more confident in the relationships.

A gliding lizard from the Early Cretaceous of China.

Gliding is an energetically efficient mode of locomotion that has evolved independently, and in different ways, in several tetrapod groups. Here, we report on an acrodontan lizard from the Early Cretaceous Jehol Group of China showing an array of morphological traits associated with gliding. It represents the only known occurrence of this specialization in a fossil lizard and provides evidence of an Early Cretaceous ecological diversification into an aerial niche by crown-group squamates. The lizard has a dorsal-rib-supported patagium, a structure independently evolved in the Late Triassic basal lepidosauromorph kuehneosaurs and the extant agamid lizard Draco, revealing a surprising case of convergent evolution among lepidosauromorphans. A patagial character combination of much longer bilaterally than anteroposteriorly, significantly thicker along the leading edge than along the trailing edge, tapered laterally to form a wing tip, and secondarily supported by an array of linear collagen fibers is not common in gliders and enriches our knowledge of gliding adaptations among tetrapods.

Sex-related differences in neuronal cell survival and signaling in rats.

While substantial and compelling evidence exists for sex-related differences in gross and microscopic brain structure, our understanding of the cellular mechanisms that give rise to these sexual dimorphisms is in its infancy. To investigate possible underlying mechanisms for sex-related differences in neuronal development, we examined neuronal survival and transductional signaling in male and female rat primary cortical neuronal cultures. We found that following 14 days in culture, the total number of surviving neurons was significantly higher in female cultures derived from either cortical plate (cp) or ventricular zone (vz), the regions where differentiating (cp) and proliferating (vz) cells are located. In addition, sex-related differences in the levels of phospho-ERK1 and Akt were also observed. Female cortical cultures had significantly higher levels of ERK1 in both cp and vz and higher levels of Akt in cp. No sex-related differences in Bcl-2 were observed. These data suggest that dimorphisms in cell survival may underlie enhanced neuronal survival (or decreased apoptosis) in female brain. Further, the appearance of sex-related differences at cellular and signaling levels in cortical neuronal cultures demonstrates that the effects of gender are not limited to parts of the brain mediating reproduction.