Valency distributions and geochemical fractions of arsenic and antimony in non-ferrous smelting soils with varying particle sizes.

Arsenic and antimony are common toxic metalloids found in associated minerals. These metalloids generally cause high-concentration pollution in non-ferrous metal smelting soils; however, few studies have investigated the pollution characteristics of these two metalloids at non-ferrous smelting sites using varying soil particle sizes. In this study, the valency distributions and geochemical fractions were investigated with varying soil particle sizes (≤ 0.05, 0.05-0.25, 0.25-1, and 1-2 mm). Soils were mainly concentrated in ≤ 0.05 and 0.05-0.25 mm with mass percentages of 32.97% and 29.02%, respectively. The highest total As and Sb concentrations in ≤ 0.05 mm were found to be 20,350 and 3655 mg/kg, respectively. In addition, As(Ⅲ), As(Ⅴ), Sb(Ⅲ), and Sb(Ⅴ) concentrations in this soil particle size were found to be 224, 19,813, 1036, and 24 mg/kg, respectively. The geochemical fractions of As and Sb in varying soil particle sizes were mainly residual, accounting for 50% and 90% in the ≤ 0.05 mm. Soil may bind ≤ 0.25 mm due to the disparity found in the geochemical compositions and valency distributions of arsenic and antimony. X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive system analysis confirmed that arsenolite accumulated in particle sizes of ≤ 0.05 and 0.05-0.25 mm. The results of this study may provide a scientific reference for risk assessment and restoration strategies for non-ferrous metal smelting soils.

Toxicological assessment and underlying mechanisms of tetrabromobisphenol A exposure on the soil nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.

The widespread use of tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) in industries has resulted in its frequent detection in environmental matrices, and the mechanisms of its associated hazards need further investigation. In this study, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) was exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of TBBPA (0, 0.1, 1, 10, 100, 200 µg/L) to determine its effects. At TBBPA concentrations above 1 µg/L, the number of head thrashes, as the most sensitive physiological indicator, decreased significantly. Using the Illumina HiSeq™ 2000 sequencer, differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were determined, and 52 were down regulated and 105 were up regulated in the 200 µg/L TBBPA treatment group versus the control group. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway database analysis demonstrated that dorso-ventral axis formation is related to neurotoxicity; metabolism of xenobiotics by Cytochrome P450 (CYP450) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) was found to be the vital metabolic mechanisms and were confirmed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). GST was ascribed to the augmentation because mutations in cyp-13A7 were constrained under TBBPA exposure. Additionally, oxidative stress indicators accumulated in a dose-dependent relationship. These results will help understand the molecular basis for TBBPA-induced toxicity in C. elegans and open novel avenues for facilitating the exploration of more efficient strategies against TBBPA toxicity.

Trans-generational effect of neurotoxicity and related stress response in Caenorhabditis elegans exposed to tetrabromobisphenol A.

Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), one of the most common brominated flame retardants, has been associated with immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity. However, little attention has been focused on understanding the trans-generational effects of TBBPA. The present study used the Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) animal model to evaluate the trans-generational effects of neurotoxicity induced by environmentally relevant concentrations of TBBPA (0, 0.1, 1, 10, 100, and 1000 µg/L). Multiple indicators including physiological effects (body length, brood size, head thrashes, body bends, and crawling trajectory), degree of neuronal damage (dopamine, GABAergic, and glutamatergic neurons), oxidative stress-related biochemical indicators (superoxide dismutase [SOD] activity, catalase [CAT] enzyme, malondialdehyde [MDA] production, and reactive oxygen species [ROS] accumulation), and stress-related gene expressions have been evaluated in the exposed parental C. elegans generation (G1) and their progeny (G2) under TBBPA-free conditions. The results showed that TBBPA exposure induced adverse effects on physiological endpoints, among which body bends and head thrashes were the most sensitive ones, detected above 1 µg/L in G1 and 100 µg/L in G2 nematodes, respectively. After contaminant exposure, the three neurons revealed damage related to neurobehavioral endpoints, with no hereditary effects in the progeny. The oxidative stress-related biochemical endpoints demonstrated that when the exposure concentrations were above 1 µg/L in maternal worms, impairment can be detected in both generations, but the progeny recovered at low toxicity concentration (1-100 µg/L). The integrated target gene expression profiles were clearly altered in G1 and G2 worms at concentrations between 1 and 1000 µg/L, and a more significant difference existed in two generations of nematodes at low levels (1-10 µg/L) of TBBPA. Studing trans-generational neurotoxicity and the underlying mechanism can generate a precise evaluation of the environmental risk of TBBPA.

Ecotoxicity of Caenorhabditis elegans following a step and repeated chronic exposure to tetrabromobisphenol A.

To better understand the toxicity of tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), its effects on the model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans were investigated. Following a step and repeated chronic exposure from L4-larvae to day-10 adult, physiology endpoints (growth and locomotion behaviors including head thrashes, body bends and pumping rate), biochemical endpoints (reactive oxygen species, superoxide dismutase activity, catalase activity), and molecular stress-related gene expression were tested at environmentally relevant concentrations of TBBPA (0.01-100 µg/L). The results showed that concentrations of TBBPA greater than 10 µg/L, clearly influenced the physiology behaviors (growth and locomotion endpoints). Under repeated exposure, C. elegans exhibited adaptive responses in head thrashes and pumping rate. Compared to toxicity evaluation following repeated chronic exposure, a significantly greater response was induced at the same concentration following a step chronic exposure. Reactive oxygen species production was significantly enhanced following a step and repeated TBBPA exposure at the concentrations of 1 and 10 µg/L, respectively. qRT-PCR showed that ctl-1, ctl-2, ctl-3 and sod-3 expression significantly increased, which was obviously correlated with physiological and biochemical behaviors under both treatment conditions according to Pearson correlation test analysis. sod-3 and ctl-2 mutations were more sensitive than the wild-type N2 under a step chronic TBBPA exposure at a level of 10 µg/L. Thus, chronic exposure to TBBPA induces an oxidative stress response in C. elegans, with ctl-2 and sod-3 playing a vital role in TBBPA-induced toxicity in nematodes.

[Sorption Characteristics of Phenanthrene and 1, 1-Dichloroethene onto Reed Straw Biochar in Aquatic Solutions].

The purpose of this study was to investigate the sorption characteristics of phenanthrene (PHE) and 1, 1-dichloroethene (1, 1-DCE) onto reed straw biochar at 500 degrees C in aquatic solutions. The sorption mechanisms and effects of solution pH and biochar mass on sorption intensity were discussed. The results showed that the time required to reach sorption equilibrium was 60 min and 480 min for PHE and 1, 1-DCE, respectively, with maximum removal rates of 81, 87% and 90.18%. The sorption kinetics of both PHE and 1, 1-DCE fitted the pseudo-second-order model well, but the pseudo-second-order reaction rate of PHE was higher than that of 1, 1-DCE. Furthermore, the sorption processes were controlled by both membrane diffusion and intra-particle diffusion, and the latter was found to be the rate-controlling step. Sorption isotherms of the two organic pollutants fitted well with the Freundlich equation, and the sorption affinity of 1, 1-DCE onto biochar was greater than that of PHE. The total sorption mechanism of biochar was the combination of partition and adsorption, and dominated by adsorption. The adsorption capacity of 1, 1-DCE was greater than that of PHE, but its partition capacity was much smaller, indicating that pollutants' molecular volume and relative polarity would mainly affect the total sorption. Analysis of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) demonstrated that oxygen- and hydrogen-containing functional groups and pi--pi interaction were important for PHE and 1, 1-DCE sorption onto biochar. The solution pH value had no significant effect on the sorption intensity of PHE and 1, 1-DCE, however, with biochar mass increasing from 5 mg to 50 mg, the equilibrium sorption amount of PHE and 1, 1-DCE decreased by 6.78 times and 2.18 times, and the removal rate increased by 20.21% and 15.78%, respectively.

Identification and Characterization of a Novel Gentisate 1,2-Dioxygenase Gene from a Halophilic Martelella Strain.

Halophilic Martelella strain AD-3, isolated from highly saline petroleum-contaminated soil, can efficiently degrade polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), such as phenanthrene and anthracene, in 3-5% salinity. Gentisic acid is a key intermediate in the microbial degradation of PAH compounds. However, there is little information on PAH degradation by moderately halophilic bacteria. In this study, a 1,077-bp long gene encoding gentisate 1,2-dioxygenase (GDO) from a halophilic Martelella strain AD-3 was cloned, sequenced, and expressed in Escherichia coli. The recombinant enzyme GDO was purified and characterized in detail. By using the (18)O isotope experiment and LC-MS analysis, the sources of the two oxygen atoms added onto maleylpyruvate were identified as H2O and O2, respectively. The Km and kcat values for gentisic acid were determined to be 26.64 µM and 161.29 s(-1), respectively. In addition, optimal GDO activity was observed at 30 °C, pH 7.0, and at 12% salinity. Site-directed mutagenesis demonstrated the importance of four highly conserved His residues at positions 155, 157, 167, and 169 for enzyme activity. This finding provides new insights into mechanism and variety of gentisate 1,2-dioxygenase for PAH degradation in high saline conditions.

Natural attenuation model and biodegradation for 1,1,1-trichloroethane contaminant in shallow groundwater.

Natural attenuation is an effective and feasible technology for controlling groundwater contamination. This study investigated the potential effectiveness and mechanisms of natural attenuation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCA) contaminants in shallow groundwater in Shanghai by using a column simulation experiment, reactive transport model, and 16S rRNA gene clone library. The results indicated that the majority of the contaminant mass was present at 2-6 m in depth, the contaminated area was approximately 1000 m × 1000 m, and natural attenuation processes were occurring at the site. The effluent breakthrough curves from the column experiments demonstrated that the effectiveness of TCA natural attenuation in the groundwater accorded with the advection-dispersion-reaction equation. The kinetic parameter of adsorption and biotic dehydrochlorination of TCA was 0.068 m(3)/kg and 0.0045 d(-1). The contamination plume was predicted to diminish and the maximum concentration of TCA decreased to 280 µg/L. The bacterial community during TCA degradation in groundwater belonged to Trichococcus, Geobacteraceae, Geobacter, Mucilaginibacter, and Arthrobacter.

Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure over- or under-estimates leachability of lead in phosphate-amended contaminated soils.

In this study, Pb(NO3)2-, PbSO4-, or PbCO3-contaminated soils were treated with triple super phosphate (TSP) or phosphate rock (PR) and then subjected to the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) to assess Pb leachability. Soluble TSP resulted in the transformation of Pb into insoluble Pb phosphate precipitates in all contaminated soils, and the transformation increased with extended leaching times. Consequently, Pb concentrations in the TCLP leachates treated with TSP were reduced by 97.3-99.7% compared with the untreated soils, and Pb leaching decreased over the extraction time and did not reach equilibrium even after 96 h of extraction. Precipitation of Pb phosphate minerals in the less soluble PR-treated soil was limited, and Pb leaching was controlled by the dissolution of the Pb compounds, resulting in elevation of Pb in the TCLP leachate. Pb leaching continued to increase with time due to continuous dissolution of PbSO4 and PbCO3. The results indicated that Pb leaching is kinetically controlled by either Pb compound dissolution or phosphate mineral formation. The standard TCLP test using a designated 18 h incubation time can overestimate the leachability of Pb in soils contaminated with lead and amended with soluble TSP and underestimate the leachability of Pb in soils contaminated with Pb and amended with less soluble PR. Therefore, wide use of TCLP for assessing Pb leachability in all contaminated soils is insufficient, and development of a site-specific evaluation method is urgently needed.

Genome Sequence of Martelella sp. Strain AD-3, a Moderately Halophilic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon-Degrading Bacterium.

Martelella sp. strain AD-3, enriched from a petroleum-contaminated site with high salinity, can efficiently degrade polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Here, we report the 4.75-Mb genome sequence of strain AD-3 with its genetic feature of helping to remediate environmental organic pollutants.

The reductive degradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane by Fe(0) in a soil slurry system.

Most studies on the treatment of chlorinated contaminants by Fe(0) focus on aqueous system tests. However, few is known about the effectiveness of these tests for degrading chlorinated contaminants such as 1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCA) in soil. In this work, the reductive degradation performance of 1,1,1-TCA by Fe(0) was thoroughly investigated in a soil slurry system. The effects of various factors including acid-washed iron, the initial 1,1,1-TCA concentration, Fe(0) dosage, slurry pH, and common constituents in groundwater and soil such as Cl(-), HCO3 (-), SO4 (2-), and NO3 (-) anions and humic acid (HA) were evaluated. The experimental results showed that 1,1,1-TCA could be effectively degraded in 12 h for an initial Fe(0) dosage of 10 g L(-1) and a soil/water mass ratio of 1:5. The soil slurry experiments showed two-stage degradation kinetics: a slow reaction in the first stage and a fast reductive degradation of 1,1,1-TCA in the second stage. The reductive degradation of 1,1,1-TCA was expedited as the mass concentration of Fe(0) increased. In addition, high pHs adversely affected the degradation of 1,1,1-TCA over a pH range of 5.4-8.0 and the reductive degradation efficiency decreased with increasing slurry pH. The initial 1,1,1-TCA concentration and the presence of Cl(-) and SO4(2-) anions had negligible effects. HCO3(-) anions had a accelerative effect on 1,1,1-TCA removal, and both NO3(-) and HA had inhibitory effects. A Cl(-) mass balance showed that the amount of Cl(-) ions released into the soil slurry system during the 1,1,1-TCA degradation increased with increasing reaction time, suggesting that the main degradation mechanism of 1,1,1-TCA by Fe(0) in a soil slurry system was reductive dechlorination with 1,1-DCA as the main intermediate. In conclusion, this study provides a theoretical basis for the practical application of the remediation of contaminated sites containing chlorinated solvent.

[Stabilization and long-term effect of chromium contaminated soil].

Short-term (3 d and 28 d) and long-term (1 a) stabilization effects of Cr contaminated soil were investigated through nature curing, using four amendments including ferrous sulfide, ferrous sulfate, zero-valent iron and sodium dithionite. The results indicated that ferrous sulfide and zero-valent iron were not helpful for the stabilization of Cr(VI) when directly used because of their poor solubility and immobility. Ferrous sulfate could effectively and rapidly decrease total leaching Cr and Cr(VI) content. The stabilization effect was further promoted by the generation of iron hydroxides after long-term curing. Sodium dithionite also had positive effect on soil stabilization. Appropriate addition ratio of the two chemicals could help maintain the soil pH in range of 6-8.

Effects of electrokinetic treatment of contaminated sludge on migration and transformation of Cd, Ni and Zn in various bonding states.

This study assesses the effect of electrokinetic processes on the migration and bonding states of various heavy metals in municipal sludge. The transformation and migration are discussed through the examination of sludge characteristics and distribution of Cd, Zn and Ni after electrokinetic treatments. The migration and distribution of the contaminants after the electrokinetic treatments were determined for each sludge sample by sequential extraction. The noticeable changes on the average speciation fractions of Cd, Zn and Ni were observed that oxidizable heavy metals increased and reducible fraction decreased due to the application of voltage. Bivariate correlation analysis indicated that the amounts of different bonding states of Zn and Ni were significantly correlated (P<0.05) with durations and resistance. The oxidizable Zn was negatively correlated with exchangeable and reducible Zn. Moreover, reducible Zn had a close negative relationship with residual Zn. The bonding state of Ni was significantly related to the durations of electrokinetic processes, indicating the existing of mutual transformation between different speciation fractions over time. The analysis also indicated that the exchangeable Cd showed a close negative relationship with reducible Cd (P<0.01), whereas the reducible Cd was negatively related to residual Cd (P<0.05).

Removal of 1,1,1-trichloroethane from aqueous solution by a sono-activated persulfate process.

1,1,1-Trichloroethane (TCA), labeled as a priority pollutant by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of China, can be removed from groundwater by sonochemical oxidation. The sonochemical oxidation of TCA in the presence of persulfate (PS) showed a significant synergistic effect. The operational parameters, ultrasonic frequency, PS/TCA molar ratio, radical scavenger, inorganic anions (Cl(-), CO(3)(2-), HCO(3)(-) and NO(3)(-)) and humic acid (HA), were evaluated during the investigation of the sonochemical reaction. The results showed that the degradation of TCA followed pseudo-first-order kinetics, and the rate constant was found to increase with increasing ultrasonic frequency but to decrease with both an increasing PS/TCA molar ratio and an increasing concentration of inorganic anions. With a concentration of 4.46mg/L of HA in solution, an enhanced effect was observed. Further addition of HA retarded the degradation rate of TCA. TCA could be eliminated almost completely by sono-activated persulfate oxidation, with sulfate and hydroxyl radicals serving as the principal oxidants as confirmed by the addition of radical scavengers. Eleven chlorinated degradation intermediates were detected and quantified by purge and trap gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (P&T-GC-MS) in the absence of pH buffer. Three TCA degradation pathways were therefore proposed. In conclusion, the sono-activated persulfate oxidation process appears to be a highly promising technique for the remediation of TCA-contaminated groundwater.

[Stabilization of heavy metals in sewage sludge by using a ferrous iron].

The stabilization of heavy metals in sewage sludge using a ferrous iron is investigated through leaching test and fractionation analysis. The results showed that FeSO4 x 7H2O was not helpful to stabilize the heavy metals in the sludge when used individually since it reduced the pH value of sludge. The pH value dropped significantly from 6.5 to 4.4, and leaching coefficients of Zinc (Zn) and Nickel (Ni) raised, respectively, to 363.3% and 118.3% when FeSO4 x 7H2O was added individually at a ratio of 5%. However, it maintained the pH value within a slight alkaline range and the leaching coefficients of heavy metals reduced significantly when combined with Ca(OH)2 as an auxiliary agent. The pH value of sludge kept to 8.4 and leaching coefficients of Zn and Ni were reduced to 11.5% and 24.1%, for example, when 15% FeSO4 x 7H2O and 7.5% Ca(OH)2 were added together into the sludge. Besides, when Ca(OH)2 was used individually, the pH value of the sludge raised highly although the heavy metals were stabilized effectively. Under same pH value, combined addition of FeSO4 x 7H2O and Ca(OH)2 promoted the stabilization of heavy metals had a better effect than individual use of Ca(OH)2. The fractionation analysis revealed that the stable species of Zn, Cu and Pb were increased, and the instable species of Ni, Cr and Cd were also raised.

[Effect of desilication treatment using silicate bacteria on the bioleaching efficiency of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash].

One silicate bacteria strain SDB6 with good performance in silicon removal was isolated and screened from soil. Based on the morphological, physiological, biochemical characteristics and 16S rDNA sequence analysis, SDB6 was identified as Bacillus mucilaginosus strain. The effects of nitrogen source, pH, temperature, rotate speed and medium volume on the growth of SDB6 were investigated. The above factors were optimized using the orthogonal design. The optimized condition was described as follows: 10 g/L yeast, 250 mL flask with 50 mL culture medium, pH 7.5, 30 degrees C, 180 r/min. The bioleaching of un-desilicated and desilicated fly ash using the adapted Aspergillus niger AS 3.879M strain was carried out for 20d. The results indicated that the metal extraction yield in bioleaching increased obviously with desilication treatment comparing to that without desilication treatment. The extraction yield of Cu, Mn, Cr, Zn and Fe from desilicated fly ash was 31%, 75%, 60%, 60% and 48%, respectively. The total metals extraction yield of desilicated fly ash increased to 50%. The TCLP results of the fly ash after bioleaching indicated that the leaching toxicities of the treated fly ash were far lower than the regulated levels of China and permitted to the further landfill or reuse.

Risk-based management of contaminated land in the UK: lessons for China?

The management of contaminated land is now assuming greater attention in Chinese debates on environmental governance. However, the existing management system appears ineffective as it lacks a clear policy framework and technical basis. In the United Kingdom (UK), contaminated land issues are dealt with through a risk-based approach. This approach emphasizes the application of risk approaches in both technical and integrated management systems. Conceptually, this paper outlines generic issues related to transferring programmes from one place to another. We argue that too much emphasis has been placed on the barriers to effective transfer, rather than focusing on methods of abstracting lessons for application in foreign settings. We then examine the Chinese system and its problems in managing contaminated land before turning to the UK risk-based approach to see what lessons can be learned from it. Four aspects are analyzed and compared: legislative and policy framework; administrative structure and capacity; technical approaches; and incentive strategy. Based on the experience of the UK in practice, some suggestions are then proposed for China in order to improve its management of contaminated land. We suggest that this should include: a focus on the problem sites; development of a risk-based technical approach and integrated management system; the introduction of financial incentives; and the use of planning control as a management strategy. It is believed that a risk-based integrated management approach may be helpful for China to achieve sustainable solutions for contaminated land.

[Application of solidification technology in ecological protection of rural riverbank].

A self-developed binder was used for the solidification of construction refuse piles and whole soil matrix, and a technology of this solidification combining with grass-planting was adopted to ecologically protect the rural riverbanks at Tianshan Village of Shanghai. This technology and other ecological engineering techniques were also employed to reconstruct the ecological environment of a sewage pond at the Village. The results showed that the solidified piles had an anti-compression strength of up to 7.3 MPa, with good hydraulic permeability, fast hardening rate, and low drying shrinkage, which met the requirements for ecological safety. The solidified stakes could be used at a low temperature of above -18 degrees C with addition of certain anti-freezing agents. The riverbank underpinned with the solidified stakes had higher anti-compressive strength, higher ability of anti-soil erosion, and better hydraulic permeability; and its soil had the similar moisture content to bare riverbank soil, with no detrimental effects on the root growth of planted grass. After soil solidification, the shearing strength of the riverbank increased by 50 times, and its soil loss was only 5% of the bare riverbank. In the first 10 days after adopting this technology, parts of Cynodon dactylon roots on the surface of solidified soil matrix began to extend into soil; after one month, 60% of the roots penetrated into deeper soil layer; and 11 months later, the grass roots completely grew in-depth in the soil. The combination of our solidification technique with vegetation reconstruction satisfied the requirements of both stabilizing riverbank and improving riparian habitat.

[Movement-adsorption and its mechanism of Cd in soil under combining effects of electrokinetics and a new type of bamboo charcoal].

The characteristics of migration and its influencing factor of cadmium in sandy loam soil by uniform electrokinetics as well as the adsorption property by a new material-bamboo charcoal were investigated through bench-scale experiments, and the feasibility of using electrokinetic technique combined with the newly developed bamboo charcoal for remediation of cadmium contaminated soils was analyzed as well. The results show that the bamboo charcoal is good adsorption material which has comparably strong adsorption effect on Cd, bearing potential in future use, which could be simulated by both Freundlich and Langmuir models (R2 > 0.96). The migration rates of cadmium in sandy loam were high up to 0. 6786 - 0.6875cm/h under an electric gradient of 1.0V/cm, depending upon the concentration of cadmium and the distribution of electric field density. Electrokinetics effectively transported the heavy metal in the soil. In the new electrokinetic tech combining the bamboo charcoal with the same electric gradient above under the polarity reversal period of 48 hours, the cadmium in the soil could be wiped off with high efficiency (removal efficiency 79.6% in 12 days) and the pH together with water content could be well retained. The electric current in the process changed periodically according to the reversal. As a new technique, the electrokinetic movement-bamboo charcoal adsorption holds high potential in future use.

The use of 2D non-uniform electric field to enhance in situ bioremediation of 2,4-dichlorophenol-contaminated soil.

In situ bioremediation is a safe and cost-effective technology for the cleanup of organic-contaminated soil, but its remediation rate is usually very slow, which results primarily from limited mass transfer of pollutants to the degrading bacteria in soil media. This study investigated the feasibility of adopting 2D non-uniform electric field to enhance in situ bioremediation process by promoting the mass transfer of organics to degrading bacteria under in situ conditions. For this purpose, a 2D non-uniform electrokinetic system was designed and tested at bench-scale with a sandy loam as the model soil and 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP) as the model organic pollutant at two common operation modes (bidirectional and rotational). Periodically, the electric field reverses its direction at bidirectional mode and revolves a given angle at rotational mode. The results demonstrated that the non-uniform electric field could effectively stimulate the desorption and the movement of 2,4-DCP in the soil. The 2,4-DCP was mobilized through soil media towards the anode at a rate of about 1.0 cmd(-1)V(-1). The results also showed that in situ biodegradation of 2,4-DCP in the soil was greatly enhanced by the applied 2D electric field upon operational mode. At the bidirectional mode, an average 2,4-DCP removal of 73.4% was achieved in 15 days, and the in situ biodegradation of 2,4-DCP was increased by about three times as compared with that uncoupled with electric field, whereas, 34.8% of 2,4-DCP was removed on average in the same time period at the rotational mode. In terms of maintaining remediation uniformity in soil, the rotational operation remarkably excelled the bidirectional operation. In the hexagonal treatment area, the 2,4-DCP removal efficiency adversely increase with the distance to the central electrode at the bidirectional mode, while the rotational mode generated almost uniform removal in soil bed.

In situ bioelectrokinetic remediation of phenol-contaminated soil by use of an electrode matrix and a rotational operation mode.

In situ bioremediation is a safe and cost-effective technology for the cleanup of contaminated sites, but its remediation rate is usually very slow. This study attempted to accelerate the process of bioremediation by employing non-uniform electrokinetic transport processes to mix organic pollutants and degrading bacteria in soils under in situ conditions (namely, in situ bioelectrokinetic remediation) by use of an electrode matrix and a rotational operation mode. A bench-scale non-uniform electrokinetic system with periodic polarity-reversal was developed for this purpose, and tested by using a sandy loam spiked with phenol as a model organic pollutant. The results demonstrated that non-uniform electrokinetic processes could enhance the in situ biodegradation of phenol in the soil, the efficiency of which depended upon the operational mode of the electric field. Compared with the unidirectional operation and the bidirectional operation, the rotational operation could effectively stimulate the biodegradation of phenol in the soil if adopting appropriate time intervals of polarity-reversal and electrode matrixes. A reversal interval of 3.0 h and a square-shaped electrode matrix with four electrode couples appeared appropriate for the in situ biodegradation of phenol, at which a maximum phenol removal of 58% was achieved in 10d and the bioremediation rate was increased about five times as compared to that with no electric field applied. The results also showed that adopting a small polarity-reversal interval and an appropriate electrode array could produce a high and uniform removal of phenol from the soil. It is believed that in situ bioelectrokinetic remediation holds the potential for field application.