Exogenous abscisic acid and sugar induce a cascade of ripening events associated with anthocyanin accumulation in cultured Pinot Noir grape berries.

Fruit quality is dependent on various factors including flavour, texture and colour. These factors are determined by the ripening process, either climacteric or non-climacteric. In grape berry, which is non-climacteric, the process is signalled by a complex set of hormone changes. Abscisic acid (ABA) is one of the key hormones involved in ripening, while sugar availability also plays a significant role in certain ripening aspects such as anthocyanin production. To understand the relative influence of hormone and sugar signalling in situ can prove problematic due to the physiological and environmental (abiotic and biotic) factors at play in vineyards. Here we report on the use of in vitro detached berry culture to investigate the comparative significance of ABA and sugar in the regulation of Pinot noir berry anthocyanin production under controlled conditions. Using a factorial experimental design, pre-véraison berries were cultured on media with various concentrations of sucrose and ABA. After 15 days of in vitro culture, the berries were analysed for changes in metabolites, hormones and gene expression. Results illustrated a stimulatory effect of sucrose and ABA on enhancing berry colour and a corresponding increase in anthocyanins. Increased ABA concentration was able to boost anthocyanin production in berries when sucrose supply was low. The sucrose and ABA effects on berry anthocyanins were primarily manifested through the up-regulation of transcription factors and other genes in the phenylpropanoid pathway, while in other parts of the pathway a down-regulation of key proanthocyanindin transcription factors and genes corresponded to sharp reduction in berry proanthocyanidins, irrespective of sucrose supply. Similarly, increased ABA was correlated with a significant reduction in berry malic acid and associated regulatory genes. These findings suggest a predominance of berry ABA over berry sugar in coordinating the physiological and genetic regulation of anthocyanins and proanthocyanins in Pinot noir grape berries.

Inter-regional survey of the New Zealand Pinot noir fermentative sulfur compounds profile.

BACKGROUND: New Zealand Pinot noir is gaining increasing attention both in New Zealand and internationally, becoming the second largest grape variety for both plantings and export. Despite the growing furore around this variety, the current coverage of the volatile chemical profile remains limited, with a lack of information on the fermentative sulfur compounds content in New Zealand Pinot noir wines. RESULTS: Thirty-five Pinot noir wines from three different vintages (i.e. 2016, 2017 and 2018) form five different grape growing regions were analysed for their fermentative sulfur compounds contents. Six fermentative sulfur compounds (i.e. methanethiol, ethanethiol, dimethyl sulfide, carbon disulfide, methionol and benzothiazol) were detected and measured for the first time in New Zealand Pinot noir wines. Their concentrations were compared against previously measured Pinot noir wines from other countries, and some preliminary evidence about inter-regional and ageing effects was obtained. CONCLUSION: The present study reports the first survey of the inter-regional differences in fermentative sulfur compounds contents in 35 New Zealand Pinot noir wines. Preliminary inter-regional and vintage trends prompt further research on the role of these molecules on this wine variety. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Metabolomics Approach to Assess the Relative Contributions of the Volatile and Non-volatile Composition to Expert Quality Ratings of Pinot Noir Wine Quality.

Wine flavor and quality are determined by the assessment of multiple sensory stimuli, including aroma, taste, and mouthfeel. It is therefore important to consider the contribution of as many metabolites as possible when attempting to relate wine composition to quality. In this study, partial least squares regression of the volatile (untargeted headspace solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry), non-volatile (untargeted reverse-phase ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry), and combined metabolite profiles were used to predict Pinot Noir wine quality ratings as assessed by experts. Non-volatile metabolite profiles predicted wine quality ratings better than volatile metabolite profiles, suggesting that the non-volatile composition of Pinot Noir wines contributes to quality perception to a greater extent than the volatile composition. This was underscored by descriptive sensory analysis, which found that taste and mouthfeel attributes were better correlated with wine quality ratings than aroma attributes. Important predictors of Pinot Noir wine quality were also characterized. Some new relationships between wine metabolites and quality ratings were found: dipeptides and unsaturated fatty acids were positively related to Pinot Noir wine quality, while N-(3-methylbutyl)acetamide and xanthine were negatively associated.

Pre-fermentative supplementation of fatty acids alters the metabolic activity of wine yeasts.

Fatty acids play important roles in the maintenance of cell membrane, viability and overall metabolism of wine yeasts (particularly Saccharomyces cerevisiae) during adverse winemaking conditions. We previously showed that linoleic acid supplementation markedly affect aroma compound production of S. cerevisiae wine strains. However, very little is known about how other commonly found fatty acids in grape juice modulate the growth and metabolism of S. cerevisiae. We aimed to determine the individual effect of five fatty acids on fermentation patterns and metabolism of two wine yeast strains (S. cerevisiae EC1118 and X5). Microvinification was performed at 15 °C by supplementing a grape juice (individually) with three different concentrations of saturated (palmitic acid), unsaturated (oleic, linoleic and γ-linolenic acids) and short-chain (hexanoic acid) fatty acids. Metabolite profiles of the resulting wines were determined using Gas-chromatography coupled to Mass-spectrometry (GC-MS). Our data show that the addition of γ-linolenic acid to the juice caused the production of higher amounts of amino and organic acids (except isoleucine and 2-oxoglutaric acid) in wines when fermented by EC1118, while palmitic acid supplementation showed similar trends when fermented by X5. The effect of linoleic acid was independent of yeast strains and we observed a global reduction of amino and organic acids (except pyruvic acid) while increased production of most of the fatty acids other than the supplemented ones. Our data clearly suggest that pre-fermentative supplementation of different fatty acids indeed influenced the growth and metabolism of wine yeasts in a different way. Thus, attention needs to be paid not only to the wine yeast strain used during the winemaking but also to the overall grape juice composition, including fatty acids, to obtain the desired wine characteristics.

Juice Index: an integrated Sauvignon blanc grape and wine metabolomics database shows mainly seasonal differences.

INTRODUCTION: Although Sauvignon Blanc (SB) grapes are cultivated widely throughout New Zealand, wines from the Marlborough region are most famous for their typical varietal combination of tropical and vegetal aromas. These wines differ in composition from season to season as well as among locations within the region, which makes the continual production of good quality wines challenging. Here, we developed a unique database of New Zealand SB grape juices and wines to develop tools to help winemakers to make blending decisions and assist in the development of new wine styles. METHODS: About 400 juices were collected from different regions in New Zealand over three harvest seasons (2011-2013), which were then fermented under controlled conditions using a commercial yeast strain Saccharomyces cerevisiae EC1118. Comprehensive metabolite profiling of these juices and wines by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was combined with their detailed oenological parameters and associated meteorological data. RESULTS: These combined metabolomics data clearly demonstrate that seasonal variation is more prominent than regional difference in both SB grape juices and wines, despite almost universal use of vineyard irrigation to mitigate seasonal rainfall and evapotranspiration differences, Additionally, we identified a group of juice metabolites that play central roles behind these variations, which may represent chemical signatures for juice and wine quality assessment. CONCLUSION: This database is the first of its kind in the world to be available for the wider scientific community and offers potential as a predictive tool for wine quality and innovation when combined with mathematical modelling.

Grape cluster microclimate influences the aroma composition of Sauvignon blanc wine.

New Zealand Sauvignon blanc (SB) wines are characterised by a distinctive combination of tropical-fruity and green-herbaceous aromatic compounds. The influence of sunlight exposure of grape clusters on juice and wine composition was investigated, with the aim of manipulating aromatic compounds in SB wine. In the absence of basal leaf removal SB clusters naturally exposed to sunlight were riper than shaded clusters, evidenced by higher total soluble solids (TSS) and proline, and lower malic acid, 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine (IBMP) and arginine. Volatile thiols in wines did not differ between shaded and exposed clusters. At equivalent TSS, cluster exposure had little or no effect on malic acid concentration. Conversely, wine from shaded clusters had almost double the IBMP concentration of wine from exposed clusters at equivalent TSS. The effects on SB juice and wine composition of natural variations in cluster microclimate are not comparable with the effects of cluster exposure created through leaf removal.