Trichoderma stromaticum spores induce autophagy and downregulate inflammatory mediators in human peripheral blood-derived macrophages.

Trichoderma spp. are usually considered safe and normally used as biocontrol and biofertilization. Safety for human health is evaluated by several tests that detect various effects such as allergenicity, toxicity, infectivity, and pathogenicity. However, they do not evaluate the effects of the agent upon the immune system. The aim of this study was to investigate the interaction between T. stromaticum spores and mammalian cells to assess the immunomodulatory potential of the spores of this fungus. First, mouse macrophage cell line J774 and human macrophages were exposed to fungal spores and analyzed for structural features, through scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Then, various analysis were performed in human macrophages as to their effect in some functional and molecular aspects of the immune system through immunocytochemistry, flow cytometry and gene expression assays. We demonstrated that T. stromaticum spores induces autophagy and autophagy-related genes (ATGs) and downmodulate inflammatory mediators, including ROS, NLRP3, the cytokines IL-1ß, IL-18, IL-12 and IL-10, as well as TLR2, TLR4, miR-146b and miR-155, which may lead to an augmented susceptibility to pathogens. Our study shows the extension of damages the biofungicide Tricovab® can cause in the innate immune response. Further studies are necessary to elucidate other innate and adaptive immune responses and, consequently, the safety of this fungus when in contact with humans.

Inhibition of extracellular traps by spores of Trichoderma stromaticum on neutrophils obtained from human peripheral blood.

Although the genus Trichoderma is widely used as a biocontrol agent in crops, little is known about its potential impact on the human immune system. In mice, our group has shown that exposition to T. asperelloides spores lead to reduced neutrophil counts in the peripheral blood and in the peritoneal cavity. In addition, T. stromaticum spores produced an inflammatory infiltrate on mice lungs, reducing the levels of IFN-γ and IL-10 cytokines, reactive oxygen species, and receptors of microbial patterns. Here we demonstrate that the interaction of human peripheral neutrophils with T. stromaticum spores also leads to a reduced release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) after induction with the NET-inducer agent phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate. This interaction also reduced the expression levels of multiple microRNAs, such as miR-221, miR-222, miR-223 and miR-27a, as well as genes related to NETs, such as ELANE, MPO and PADI4. Furthermore, T. stromaticum spores affected the expression of the genes SOCS3, TLR4, CSNK2A1, GSDMD, and NFFKBIA, related to the activation of inflammatory immune responses in neutrophils. Overall, our results suggest T. stromaticum as a potential NET inhibitor and as an immunomodulatory agent. Since this fungus is used as biocontrol in crops, our findings point to the importance of advancing our knowledge on the effects of this bioagent on the human immune system. Finally, the study of the active compounds produced by the fungus is also important for the prospection of new drugs that could be used to block the exacerbation of inflammatory immune responses present in several human diseases.

Sofosbuvir inhibits yellow fever virus in vitro and in patients with acute liver failure.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: Direct antiviral agents (DAAs) are very efficient in inhibiting hepatitis C virus and might be used to treat infections caused by other flaviviruses whose worldwide detection has recently increased. The aim of this study was to verify the efficacy of DAAs in inhibiting yellow fever virus (YFV) by using drug repositioning (a methodology applied in the pharmaceutical industry to identify new uses for approved drugs). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Three DAAs were evaluated: daclatasvir, sofosbuvir and ledipasvir or their combinations. For in vitro assays, the drugs were diluted in 100% dimethyl sulfoxide. Vaccine strain 17D and a 17D strain expressing the reporter fluorescent protein were used in the assays. A fast and reliable cell-based screening assay using Vero cells or Huh-7 cells (a hepatocyte-derived carcinoma ell line) was carried out. Two patients who acquired yellow fever virus with acute liver failure were treated with sofosbuvir for one week as a compassionate use. RESULTS: Using a high-content screening assay, we verified that sofosbuvir presented the best antiviral activity against YFV. Moreover, after an off-label treatment with sofosbuvir, the two female patients diagnosed with yellow fever infection displayed a reduction in blood viremia and an improvement in the course of the disease, which was observed in the laboratory medical parameters related to disease evolution. CONCLUSIONS: Sofosbuvir may be used as an option for treatment against YFV until other drugs are identified and approved for human use. These results offer insights into the role of nonstructural protein 5 (NS5) in YFV inhibition and suggest that nonstructural proteins may be explored as drug targets for YFV treatment.

Toxoplasma gondii induces extracellular traps release in cat neutrophils.

Neutrophils respond differently to violations of the body's physiological barriers during infections. Extracellular traps comprise one of the mechanisms used by these cells to reduce the spread of pathogens to neighboring tissues, as well as ensure a high concentration of antimicrobial agents at the site of infection. To date, this innate defense mechanism has not been previously demonstrated in neutrophils of cats exposed to Toxoplasma gondii. The aim of this study was to characterize the in vitro release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) when neutrophils isolated from cats were exposed to T. gondii. First, cellular viability was tested at different time points after parasite exposure. The production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lactate dehydrogenase and the amount of extracellular DNA were quantified. In addition, the number of parasites associated with neutrophils was determined, and the observed NETs formed were microscopically characterized. Results showed that (i) in culture, neutrophils isolated from cats presented diminished cellular viability after 4 h of incubation, and when neutrophils were incubated with T. gondii, they displayed cytotoxic effects after 3 h of interaction; (ii) neutrophils were able to release structures composed of DNA and histones, characterized as NETs under optical, immunofluorescence, and electron scanning microscopy, when stimulated with T. gondii; (iii) only 11.4% of neutrophils were able to discharge NETs during 3 h of incubation; however, it was observed through extracellular quantification of DNA that this small number of cells were able to display different behavior compared to a negative control (no parasite) group; (iv) significant differences in ROS production were observed in neutrophils exposed to T. gondii. In conclusion, our results showed that neutrophils isolated from cats exposed to T. gondii release structures composed of DNA and histones, similar to what has already been described in other neutrophil species infected with the parasite.

Sofosbuvir inhibits yellow fever virus in vitro and in patients with acute liver failure

Introduction and objectives Direct antiviral agents (DAAs) are very efficient in inhibiting hepatitis C virus and might be used to treat infections caused by other flaviviruses whose worldwide detection has recently increased. The aim of this study was to verify the efficacy of DAAs in inhibiting yellow fever virus (YFV) by using drug repositioning (a methodology applied in the pharmaceutical industry to identify new uses for approved drugs). Materials and methods Three DAAs were evaluated: daclatasvir, sofosbuvir and ledipasvir or their combinations. For in vitro assays, the drugs were diluted in 100% dimethyl sulfoxide. Vaccine strain 17D and a 17D strain expressing the reporter fluorescent protein were used in the assays. A fast and reliable cell-based screening assay using Vero cells or Huh-7 cells (a hepatocyte-derived carcinoma ell line) was carried out. Two patients who acquired yellow fever virus with acute liver failure were treated with sofosbuvir for one week as a compassionate use. Results Using a high-content screening assay, we verified that sofosbuvir presented the best antiviral activity against YFV. Moreover, after an off-label treatment with sofosbuvir, the two female patients diagnosed with yellow fever infection displayed a reduction in blood viremia and an improvement in the course of the disease, which was observed in the laboratory medical parameters related to disease evolution. Conclusions Sofosbuvir may be used as an option for treatment against YFV until other drugs are identified and approved for human use. These results offer insights into the role of nonstructural protein 5 (NS5) in YFV inhibition and suggest that nonstructural proteins may be explored as drug targets for YFV treatment.

Persistence and intra-host genetic evolution of Zika virus infection in symptomatic adults: a special view in the male reproductive system

We followed the presence of Zika virus (ZIKV) in four healthy adults (two men and two women), for periods ranging from 78 to 298 days post symptom onset. The patients were evaluated regarding the presence of the virus in different body fluids (blood, saliva, urine and semen), development of immune responses (including antibodies, cytokines and chemokines), and virus genetic variation within samples collected from semen and urine during the infection course. The analysis was focused primarily on the two male patients who shed the virus for up to 158 days after the initial symptoms. ZIKV particles were detected in the spermatozoa cytoplasm and flagella, in immature sperm cells and could also be isolated from semen in cell culture, confirming that the virus is able to preserve integrity and infectivity during replication in the male reproductive system (MRS). Despite the damage caused by ZIKV infection within the MRS, our data showed that ZIKV infection did not result in infertility at least in one of the male patients. This patient was able to conceive a child after the infection. We also detected alterations in the male genital cytokine milieu, which could play an important role in the replication and transmission of the virus which could considerably increase the risk of ZIKV sexual spread. In addition, full genome ZIKV sequences were obtained from several samples (mainly semen), which allowed us to monitor the evolution of the virus within a patient during the infection course. We observed genetic changes over time in consensus sequences and lower frequency intra-host single nucleotide variants (iSNV), that suggested independent compartmentalization of ZIKV populations in the reproductive and urinary systems. Altogether, the present observations confirm the risks associated with the long-term replication and shedding of ZIKV in the MRS and help to elucidate patterns of intra-host genetic evolution during long term replication of the virus.

Mast cells are crucial in the resistance against Toxoplasma gondii oral infection.

During oral infection, mucosal immunity assumes a predominant role. Here, we addressed the role of mast cells (MCs), which are mainly located in mucosa during oral infection with Toxoplasma gondii, using MC-deficient (W/W(v) ) mice. We show that in the absence of MCs the resistance of W/W(v) mice to oral infection was considerably reduced. W/W(v) mice uniformly succumbed within 15 days of infection after administration of cysts of the ME49 strain of T. gondii. The rapid lethality of T. gondii in W/W(v) mice correlated with a delayed Th1-cell response, since IFN-γ and IL-12 levels peaked in the later phase of the infection. In vitro, BM-derived MCs were able to recognize parasite lysate in a MyD88-dependent way, reaffirming the role of this TLR adapter in immune responses to T. gondii. The importance of MCs in vivo was confirmed when W/W(v) mice reconstituted with BM-derived MCs from control mice retrieved an early strong Th1-cell response and specially a significant IL-12 production. In conclusion, MCs play an important role for the development of a protective immune response during oral infection with T. gondii.

Recombinant vaccines against T. gondii: comparison between homologous and heterologous vaccination protocols using two viral vectors expressing SAG1.

The use of recombinant viral vectors expressing T. gondii antigens is a safe and efficient approach to induce immune response against the parasite and a valuable tool for vaccine development. We have previously protected mice from toxoplasmosis by immunizing the animals with an adenovirus expressing the protein SAG1 (AdSAG1) of T. gondii. We are now looking for ways to improve the vaccination strategy and enhance protection. One limitation of homologous vaccinations (sequential doses of the same vector) is induction of anti-vector immune response that blocks cell transduction, restricts transgene expression and, consequently, compromises the overall outcome of vaccination. One way to avert the effects of anti-vector response is to use different viruses in prime and boost (heterologous vaccination). Bearing this in mind, we generated a modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara encoding SAG1 (MVASAG1), to be tested as boost agent after prime with AdSAG1. Although minor differences were observed in the magnitude of the anti-SAG1 immune response induced by each vaccination protocol, the heterologous immunization with AdSAG1 followed by MVASAG1 resulted in improved capacity to control brain cyst formation in a model of chronic toxoplasmosis in C57BL/6 mice.