Impact of Acute High Glucose on Mitochondrial Function in a Model of Endothelial Cells: Role of PDGF-C.

An increase in plasma high glucose promotes endothelial dysfunction mainly through increasing mitochondrial ROS production. High glucose ROS-induced has been implicated in the fragmentation of the mitochondrial network, mainly by an unbalance expression of mitochondrial fusion and fission proteins. Mitochondrial dynamics alterations affect cellular bioenergetics. Here, we assessed the effect of PDGF-C on mitochondrial dynamics and glycolytic and mitochondrial metabolism in a model of endothelial dysfunction induced by high glucose. High glucose induced a fragmented mitochondrial phenotype associated with the reduced expression of OPA1 protein, high DRP1pSer616 levels and reduced basal respiration, maximal respiration, spare respiratory capacity, non-mitochondrial oxygen consumption and ATP production, regarding normal glucose. In these conditions, PDGF-C significantly increased the expression of OPA1 fusion protein, diminished DRP1pSer616 levels and restored the mitochondrial network. On mitochondrial function, PDGF-C increased the non-mitochondrial oxygen consumption diminished by high glucose conditions. These results suggest that PDGF-C modulates the damage induced by HG on the mitochondrial network and morphology of human aortic endothelial cells; additionally, it compensates for the alteration in the energetic phenotype induced by HG.

Oxidative Stress in ICU Patients: ROS as Mortality Long-Term Predictor.

Lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, and mutations in mitochondrial DNA generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) that are involved in cell death and inflammatory response syndrome. ROS can also act as a signal in the intracellular pathways involved in normal cell growth and homeostasis, as well as in response to metabolic adaptations, autophagy, immunity, differentiation and cell aging, the latter of which is an important characteristic in acute and chronic pathologies. Thus, the measurement of ROS levels of critically ill patients, upon admission, enables a prediction not only of the severity of the inflammatory response, but also of its subsequent potential outcome. The aim of this study was to measure the levels of mitochondrial ROS (superoxide anion) in the peripheral blood lymphocytes within 24 h of admission and correlate them with survival at one year after ICU and hospital discharge. We designed an observational prospective study in 51 critical care patients, in which clinical variables and ROS production were identified and correlated with mortality at 12 months post-ICU hospitalization. Oxidative stress levels, measured as DHE fluorescence, show a positive correlation with increased long-term mortality. In ICU patients the major determinant of survival is oxidative stress, which determines inflammation and outlines the cellular response to inflammatory stimuli.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Intensive Care Unit Patients.

BACKGROUND: In patients admitted to the Intensive Care Unit (ICU), mortality is high due to multiple organ damage. Mitochondrial dysfunction and impaired oxygen consumption, as causative mechanisms, play a significant role in reducing the activity of immune cells in sepsis, resulting in the progression of the multiple organ dysfunction syndromes (MODS). The evaluation of mitochondrial function in critical care patients in the immune cells, especially in lymphocytes, could reveal the target point that determines mitochondrial failure. OBJECTIVE: To find the relationship between mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production (mROS), mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), and mitochondrial oxygen consumption (mVO2) in peripheral plasma lymphocytes collected from ICU patients. We also compared these three characteristic mitochondrial functions with C-reactive protein (CRP), serum lactate, and central venous saturation (SvO2) that would enable the prediction of the ultimate outcome. METHODS: Isolated lymphocytes from 54 critical care patients with SIRS by sepsis and non-sepsis etiologies were analyzed with flow cytometry by staining with dihydroethidium and JC-1, measuring mROS, ΔΨm, and mVO2. Clinical variables, such as serum lactate (mmol/L) and C-reactive protein (mg/L) from peripheral blood, were measured in the first 24 hours of admission. A confounding analysis was performed using logistic regression, and a p-value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS: It has been confirmed that there is a drastic increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mVO2 in critically ill patients immediately after exposure to the insult pathogen-associated molecular pattern /damageassociated molecular pattern (PAMPS/DAMPS) and continued for the first 24 hours thereafter. The results showed no significant alterations in the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) compared with the lymphocytes in controls. A significant correlation between CRP and SvO2 and a strong positive relationship between CRP, values above 3 mg/l, and white blood cells were observed. CONCLUSION: Lymphocytes from patients with SIRS displayed higher mitochondrial respiratory capacities and reactive oxygen species production compared with controls. Clinical markers of inflammation indirectly evaluate the mitochondrial function, most of which have been validated in a clinical setting.

Effect of 6-Shogaol on the Glucose Uptake and Survival of HT1080 Fibrosarcoma Cells.

Ginger is a plant that is native to southern China. In the last decade and research on the components of ginger has significantly increased; of these components, 6-shogaol exhibits the greatest potential antitumor capacity. However, the molecular mechanism through which 6-shogaol exerts its effects has not yet been elucidated. In this study, the effect of 6-shogaol on tumor cells that were derived from human fibrosarcoma (HT1080) was evaluated. Cell viability was determined by a (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) MTT assay testing different concentrations of 6-shogaol (2.5-150 µM). Subsequently, the effect of 6-shogaol on reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, glucose uptake, and protein expression of the signaling pathway phosphatase and tensin homolog/ protein kinase B /mammalian target of rapamycin (PTEN/Akt/mTOR) was measured. 6-Shogaol reduced the viability of the tumor cells and caused an increase in ROS production, which was attenuated with the addition of N-acetylcysteine, and the recovery of cell viability was observed. The increase in ROS production in response to 6-shogaol was associated with cell death. Similarly, glucose uptake decreased with incremental concentrations of 6-shogaol, and an increase in the expression of mTOR-p and Akt-p proteins was observed; PTEN was active in all the treatments with 6-shogaol. Thus, the results suggest that cells activate uncontrolled signaling pathways, such as phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/mTOR, among other alternative mechanisms of metabolic modulation and of survival in order to counteract the pro-oxidant effect of 6-shogaol and the decrease in glucose uptake. Interestingly, a differential response was observed when non-cancerous cells were treated with 6-shogaol.

Metabolic and Inflammatory Adaptation of Reactive Astrocytes: Role of PPARs.

Astrocyte-mediated inflammation is associated with degenerative pathologies such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases and multiple sclerosis. The acute inflammation and morphological and metabolic changes that astrocytes develop after the insult are known as reactive astroglia or astrogliosis that is an important response to protect and repair the lesion. Astrocytes optimize their metabolism to produce lactate, glutamate, and ketone bodies in order to provide energy to the neurons that are deprived of nutrients upon insult. Firstly, we review the basis of inflammation and morphological changes of the different cell population implicated in reactive gliosis. Next, we discuss the more active metabolic pathways in healthy astrocytes and explain the metabolic response of astrocytes to the insult in different pathologies and which metabolic alterations generate complications in these diseases. We emphasize the role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors isotypes in the inflammatory and metabolic adaptation of astrogliosis developed in ischemia or neurodegenerative diseases. Based on results reported in astrocytes and other cells, we resume and hypothesize the effect of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) activation with ligands on different metabolic pathways in order to supply energy to the neurons. The activation of selective PPAR isotype activity may serve as an input to better understand the role played by these receptors on the metabolic and inflammatory compensation of astrogliosis and might represent an opportunity to develop new therapeutic strategies against traumatic brain injuries and neurodegenerative diseases.

Biguanides sensitize leukemia cells to ABT-737-induced apoptosis by inhibiting mitochondrial electron transport.

Metformin displays antileukemic effects partly due to activation of AMPK and subsequent inhibition of mTOR signaling. Nevertheless, Metformin also inhibits mitochondrial electron transport at complex I in an AMPK-independent manner, Here we report that Metformin and rotenone inhibit mitochondrial electron transport and increase triglyceride levels in leukemia cell lines, suggesting impairment of fatty acid oxidation (FAO). We also report that, like other FAO inhibitors, both agents and the related biguanide, Phenformin, increase sensitivity to apoptosis induction by the bcl-2 inhibitor ABT-737 supporting the notion that electron transport antagonizes activation of the intrinsic apoptosis pathway in leukemia cells. Both biguanides and rotenone induce superoxide generation in leukemia cells, indicating that oxidative damage may sensitize toABT-737 induced apoptosis. In addition, we demonstrate that Metformin sensitizes leukemia cells to the oligomerization of Bak, suggesting that the observed synergy with ABT-737 is mediated, at least in part, by enhanced outer mitochondrial membrane permeabilization. Notably, Phenformin was at least 10-fold more potent than Metformin in abrogating electron transport and increasing sensitivity to ABT-737, suggesting that this agent may be better suited for targeting hematological malignancies. Taken together, our results suggest that inhibition of mitochondrial metabolism by Metformin or Phenformin is associated with increased leukemia cell susceptibility to induction of intrinsic apoptosis, and provide a rationale for clinical studies exploring the efficacy of combining biguanides with the orally bioavailable derivative of ABT-737, Venetoclax.

Platelets promote mitochondrial uncoupling and resistance to apoptosis in leukemia cells: a novel paradigm for the bone marrow microenvironment.

Here we report that leukemia cell lines and primary CD34+ leukemic blasts exposed to platelet rich plasma (PRP) or platelet lysates (PL) display increased resistance to apoptosis induced by mitochondria-targeted agents ABT-737 and CDDO-Me. Intriguingly, leukemia cells exposed to platelet components demonstrate a reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨM) and a transient increase in oxygen consumption, suggestive of mitochondrial uncoupling. Accompanying the ranolazine-sensitive increase in oxygen consumption, a reduction in triglyceride content was also observed in leukemia cells cultured with platelet components indicating that lipolysis and fatty acid oxidation may support the molecular reduction of oxygen in these cells. Mechanistically, platelet components antagonized Bax oligomerization in accordance with previous observations supporting an antiapoptotic role for fatty acid oxidation in leukemia cells. Lastly, substantiating the notion that mitochondrial uncoupling reduces oxidative stress, platelet components induced a marked decrease in basal and rotenone-induced superoxide levels in leukemia cells. Taken together, the decrease in ΔΨM, the transient increase in ranolazine-sensitive oxygen consumption, the reduction in triglyceride levels, and the reduced generation of superoxide, all accompanying the increased resistance to mitochondrial apoptosis, substantiate the hypothesis that platelets may contribute to the chemoprotective sanctuary of the bone marrow microenvironment via promotion of mitochondrial uncoupling.

Computational Insights of the Interaction among Sea Anemones Neurotoxins and Kv1.3 Channel.

Sea anemone neurotoxins are peptides that interact with Na(+) and K(+) channels, resulting in specific alterations on their functions. Some of these neurotoxins (1ROO, 1BGK, 2K9E, 1BEI) are important for the treatment of about 80 autoimmune disorders because of their specificity for Kv1.3 channel. The aim of this study was to identify the common residues among these neurotoxins by computational methods, and establish whether there is a pattern useful for the future generation of a treatment for autoimmune diseases. Our results showed eight new key common residues between the studied neurotoxins interacting with a histidine ring and the selectivity filter of the receptor, thus showing a possible pattern of interaction. This knowledge may serve as an input for the design of more promising drugs for autoimmune treatments.

Structural insights from GRP78-NF-κB binding interactions: a computational approach to understand a possible neuroprotective pathway in brain injuries.

GRP78 participates in multiple functions in the cell during normal and pathological conditions, controlling calcium homeostasis, protein folding and Unfolded Protein Response. GRP78 is located in the endoplasmic reticulum, but it can change its location under stress, hypoxic and apoptotic conditions. NF-κB represents the keystone of the inflammatory process and regulates the transcription of several genes related with apoptosis, differentiation, and cell growth. The possible relationship between GRP78-NF-κB could support and explain several mechanisms that may regulate a variety of cell functions, especially following brain injuries. Although several reports show interactions between NF-κB and Heat Shock Proteins family members, there is a lack of information on how GRP78 may be interacting with NF-κB, and possibly regulating its downstream activation. Therefore, we assessed the computational predictions of the GRP78 (Chain A) and NF-κB complex (IkB alpha and p65) protein-protein interactions. The interaction interface of the docking model showed that the amino acids ASN 47, GLU 215, GLY 403 of GRP78 and THR 54, ASN 182 and HIS 184 of NF-κB are key residues involved in the docking. The electrostatic field between GRP78-NF-κB interfaces and Molecular Dynamic simulations support the possible interaction between the proteins. In conclusion, this work shed some light in the possible GRP78-NF-κB complex indicating key residues in this crosstalk, which may be used as an input for better drug design strategy targeting NF-κB downstream signaling as a new therapeutic approach following brain injuries.

Relação entre qualidade do sono e funções cognitivas em pacientes com doença de Parkinson / Relación entre la calidad del sueño y función cognitiva en pacientes con la enfermedad de Parkinson / Relationship between quality of sleep and cognitive function in patients with Parkinsons disease

Descrever as características clínicas e demográficas de pacientes com Doença de Parkinson, bem como verificar a relação entre a qualidade do sono e as funções cognitivas. Trata-se de um estudo descritivo-analítico de corte transversal em que foram avaliados episódios de depressão, ansiedade, estado geral e progressão da doença, sonolência, qualidade do sono e funções cognitivas de 24 pacientes com Doença de Parkinson sem demência. Analisando os resultados do teste de memória tardia e a as alterações do sono, encontrou-se correlação do tipo inversa e moderada. O componente latência do sono teve uma correlação inversa e moderada com a memória, e também com a função visuoespacial. Outras relações também foram observadas como entre a qualidade subjetiva do sono e a função visuoespacial, a latência do sono e o resultado global do SCOPA-COG, e entre a duração do sono e a atenção. Todas essas correlações foram inversas e de caráter fraco. Esse estudo sugere que os déficits cognitivos leves, na ausência de demência, foram relacionados com qualidade ruim do sono.

Describir las características clínicas de pacientes con la enfermedad de Parkinson, así como la relación entre la calidad del sueño y las funciones cognitivas. Se realizó un estudio descriptivo-analítico de corte transversal que evaluó: los episodios de depresión, ansiedad, estado de salud general, progresión de la enfermedad, sueño, calidad del sueño y funciones cognitivas de 24 pacientes con enfermedad de Parkinson sin demencia. Se observó una relación inversa de tipo moderada entre la memoria tardía y trastornos del sueño. El componente de la latencia del sueño tuvo una correlación inversa moderada con la memoria, y con la función visuoespacial. También se observaron otras relaciones entre la calidad subjetiva del sueño y la función visuoespacial, la latencia del sueño y el resultado global de la SCOPA-COG, y entre la duración del sueño y la atención. Se observó que estas correlaciones fueron inversas y de carácter débil. Este estudio sugiere que los déficits cognitivos leves en ausencia de demencia se relacionaron con la mala calidad del sueño.

Here, we describe the clinical characteristics of patients with Parkinson's disease, as well as study the relationship between sleep quality and cognitive functions. This is a descriptive-analytical cross-sectional study in which we evaluate episodes of depression and anxiety, as well as the state of general health, disease progression, sleepiness, sleep quality and cognitive functions of 24 patients with Parkinson's disease without dementia. We found a moderate inverse correlation between memory and sleep disturbances, and a moderate inverse correlation of memory and visuospatial function. We also observed other associations between subjective sleep quality and visuospatial function, sleep latency and the overall result of the SCOPA-COG, and between sleep duration and attention; all of these correlations were inverse and weak. This study suggests that mild cognitive deficits in the absence of dementia are associated with poor sleep quality.

Integrative Approach for Computationally Inferring Interactions between the Alpha and Beta Subunits of the Calcium-Activated Potassium Channel (BK): a Docking Study.

Three-dimensional models of the alpha- and beta-1 subunits of the calcium-activated potassium channel (BK) were predicted by threading modeling. A recursive approach comprising of sequence alignment and model building based on three templates was used to build these models, with the refinement of non-conserved regions carried out using threading techniques. The complex formed by the subunits was studied by means of docking techniques, using 3D models of the two subunits, and an approach based on rigid-body structures. Structural effects of the complex were analyzed with respect to hydrogen-bond interactions and binding-energy calculations. Potential interaction sites of the complex were determined by referencing a study of the difference accessible surface area (DASA) of the protein subunits in the complex.

Novel interactions of GRP78: UPR and estrogen responses in the brain.

Glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78; 78 kDa) belongs to a group of highly conserved heat shock proteins (Hsp) with important functions at the cellular level. The emerging interest for GRP78 relies on its different functions, both in normal and pathological circumstances. GRP78 regulates intracellular calcium, protein shaping, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and cell survival by an immediate response to insults, and that its expression may also be regulated by estrogens. Although these roles are well explored, the mechanisms by which GRP78 induces these changes are not completely understood. In this review, we highlight various aspects related to the GRP78 functioning in cellular protection and repair in response to ER stress and unfolded protein response by the regulation of intracellular Ca(2+) and other mechanisms. In this respect, the novel interactions between GRP78 and estrogens, such as estradiol and others, are analyzed in the context of the central nervous system (CNS). We also discuss the importance of GRP78 and estrogens in brain diseases including ischemia, Alzheimer's and Huntington's disorders. Finally, the main protective mechanisms of GRP78 and estrogens during ER dysfunction in the brain are described, and the prospective roles of GRP78 in therapeutic processes.

Cellular and molecular mechanisms of antioxidants in Parkinson's disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative movement disorder characterized by the degeneration and progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. It has been suggested that oxidative stress plays a role in the etiology and progression of PD. For instance, low levels of endogenous antioxidants, increased reactive species, augmented dopamine oxidation, and high iron levels have been found in brains from PD patients. In vitro and in vivo studies of Parkinson models evaluating natural and endogenous antioxidants such as polyphenols, coenzyme Q10, and vitamins A, C, and E have shown protective effects against oxidative-induced neuronal death. In this paper, we will review the mechanisms by which polyphenols and endogenous antioxidants can produce protection. Some of the mechanisms reviewed include: scavenging nitrogen and oxygen reactive species, regulation of signaling pathways associated with cell survival and inflammation, and inhibition of synphilin-1 and alpha-synuclein aggregation.

Proteína LIC10494 de Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni: modelo estructural y regiones funcionales asociadas / Protein LIC10494 of Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni: structural model and associated functional regions / Proteína LIC10494 de Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni: modelo estrutural e regiões funcionais associadas

Objetivo. Predecir computacionalmente la estructura tridimensional de la proteína antigénica LIC10494 e inferir las regiones funcionales asociadas importantes para su antigenicidad e inmunogenicidad. Materiales y métodos. Se realizó un análisis computacional de la estructura primaria de LIC10494 a partir de los servidores BLAST, PROTPARAM, PROTSCALE, DAS, SOSUI, TOPPRED, TMAP, TMPRED, SPLIT4, PHDHTM, TMHMM2, HMMTOP2, GLOBPLOT y PROSITE. La estructura secundaria se obtuvo por consenso de los algoritmos SOPM, PREDATOR GOR4, DPM y DSC. La aproximación a la estructura terciaria se obtuvo con el algoritmo MUSTER. La minimización de energía se obtuvo a partir del campo de fuerza AMBER94 de la suite de análisis molecular SCHRODINGER, y la validación tanto estereoquímica como energética del modelo se realizó con el servidor RAMPAGE. El modelo final fue visualizado con el programa PyMol v.0,98. Resultados. En el presente estudio se propone un modelo computacional que detalla la estructura tridimensional de la lipoproteína hipotética LIC10494 y está de acuerdo con reportes experimentales previos; el estudio demuestra la existencia de patrones que podrían tener un papel importante en la patogenicidad y la protección de la bacteria frente al sistema inmune del hospedero; la presencia de una región desordenada entre los aminoácidos 80 y 140; y la presencia de un segmento transmembrana entre los aminoácidos 8 y 22. Conclusión. La coincidencia entre segmentos estructurales y funcionales sugiere que el modelo puede usarse para predecir ciertos aspectos del comportamiento biológico de la proteína en cuanto a la patogenicidad e inmunogenicidad de la bacteria.

Objective. Predict by computational means the 3D structure of the antigenic protein LIC10494 and report associated important functional regions for its pathogenicity and immunogenicity. Materials and methods. We performed a computational analysis of the primary structure of LIC10494 using the servers BLAST, PROTPARAM, PROTSCALE, DAS, SOSUI, TOPPRED, TMAP, TMpred, SPLIT4, PHDHTM, TMHMM2, HMMTOP2, GLOBPLOT and PROSITE. The secondary structure was obtained by consensus of the algorithms SOPM, PREDATOR GOR4, DPM and DSC. The approach to the tertiary structure was obtained using the algorithm MUSTER. The energy minimization was done using the AMBER94 force field of the Schrodinger suite of molecular analysis, and the stereochemistry and energy model validation was performed by the RAMPAGE server. The final model was visualized using PyMol V.0,98. Results. This study proposes a computational model that describes the 3D structure of the hypothetical lipoprotein LIC10494 and agrees with previous experimental reports; thus, our study demonstrates the existence of patterns that could play an important role in the pathogenicity and protection of the bacteria against the host immune system; the presence of a disorganized region between amino acids 80 and 140, and of a transmembrane segment between amino acids 8 and 22. Conclusion. The coincidence between structural and functional segments suggests that our model can be used to predict certain aspects of the biological behaviour of the protein according to the pathogenic and immunogenic characteristics of the bacteria.

Objetivo. Predizer computacionalmente a estrutura tridimensional da proteína antigênica LIC10494 e inferir as regiões funcionais associadas importantes para a sua antigenicidade e imunogenicidade. Materiais e métodos. Foi realizada uma análise computacional da estrutura primária da LIC10494 nos servidores, BLAST, PROTPARAM, PROTSCALE, DAS, SOSUI, TOPPRED, TMAP, TMPRED, SPLIT4, PHDHTM, TMHMM2, HMMTOP2, GLOBPLOT e PROSITE. A estrutura secundária foi obtida por consenso dos algoritmos SOPM, PREDATOR GOR4, DPM e DSC. A aproximação para a estrutura terciária foi obtida com o algoritmo MUSTER. A minimização de energia foi obtida a partir do campo de força AMBER94 do conjunto de análise molecular SCHRODINGER, e a validação estereoquímica e energética do modelo foi realizada utilizando o servidor RAMPAGE. O modelo final foi visualizado com o programa PyMol V. 0,98. Resultados. Este estudo propõe um modelo computacional que descreve a estrutura tridimensional da lipoproteína hipotética LIC10494 e concorda com anteriores relatórios experimental; o estudo demonstra a existência de padrões que poderiam desempenhar um papel importante na patogenicidade e na proteção da bactéria ao sistema imune do hospedeiro; a presença de uma região desordenada entre os aminoácidos 80 e 140, e a presença de um segmento transmembrana entre os aminoácidos 8 e 22. Conclusão. A coincidência entre os segmentos estruturais e funcionais sugere que o modelo pode ser utilizado para prever determinados aspectos do comportamento biológico da proteína na patogenicidade e imunogenicidade da bactéria.

Effects of natural antioxidants in neurodegenerative disease.

Polyphenols are secondary metabolites with antioxidant properties and are abundant in the diet. Fruits, vegetables, herbs, and various drinks (tea, wine, and juices) are all sources of these molecules. Despite their abundance, investigations into the benefits of polyphenols in human health have only recently begun. Phenolic compounds have received increasing interest because of numerous epidemiological studies. These studies have suggested associations between the consumption of polyphenol-rich aliments and the prevention of chronic diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases. More specifically, in the last 10 years literature on the neuroprotective effects of a polyphenol-rich diet has grown considerably. It has been demonstrated, in various cell culture and animal models, that these metabolites are able to protect neuronal cells by attenuating oxidative stress and damage. However, it remains unclear as to how these compounds reach the brain, what concentrations are necessary, and what biologically active forms are needed to exert beneficial effects. Therefore, further research is needed to identify the molecular pathways and intracellular targets responsible for polyphenol's neuroprotective effects. The aim of this paper is to present various well-known dietary polyphenols and their mechanisms of neuroprotection with an emphasis on Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Neuroprotective agents in brain injury: a partial failure?

Brain injury leads to inflammation, stress, and cell death. Neurons are more susceptible to injury than astrocytes, as they have limited antioxidant capacity, and rely heavily on their metabolic coupling with astrocytes to combat oxidative stress. Both normally and after brain injury, astrocytes support neurons by providing antioxidant protection, substrates for neuronal metabolism, and glutamate clearance. Although astrocytes are generally more resilient than neurons after injury, severe damage also results in astrocyte dysfunction, leading to increased neuronal death. This mini review provides a very insightful and brief overview on a few examples of promising neuroprotective compounds targeting astrocyte function, with specific attention on how these treatments alter astrocyte response or viability, and how this may be critical for neuronal survival following brain injury.

Regulación de la utilización del aspartato por los astrocitos durante la prelactancia / Regulation of the use of aspartate by the astrocytes during the presuckling period / Regulação da utilização do aspartato pelos astrócitos durante a prelactância

En el período perinatal se incrementa la concentración de N-acetil-L-aspartato (NAA) producido por las neuronas, este sustrato es absorbido por los astrocitos e hidrolizado vía aspartoacilasa II (ASPA; EC 3.5.1.15) en acetato y aspartato. Se postula que el aspartato podría colaborar en suplir los requerimientos metabólicos de los astrocitos durante la prelactancia. Objetivos. Evaluar la capacidad de los astrocitos para utilizar el aspartato como sustrato metabólico en condiciones fisiológicas perinatales y determinar si la utilización del aspartato puede ser modificada por variaciones en las concentraciones de glucosa (Glc), lactato (Lac) y N-acetil-L-aspartato (NAA) y si estas variaciones de concentración, pueden regular la actividad enzimática de la ASPA. Materiales y métodos. Se incubaron cultivos quiescentes de astrocitos neonatales de rata Wistar con L-aspartato (0.5 mM) y L-[U-14C]-aspartato (2 μCi), para evaluar su capacidad para utilizarlo como sustrato oxidativo y lipogénico. Se determino el efecto de la variación de las concentraciones de Lac, Glc y NAA, en condiciones fisiológicas perinatales como de adulto, sobre la utilización del aspartato (método radiométrico) y sobre la actividad del ASPA (método espectrofotométrico). Resultados. Se demostró que los astrocitos están en capacidad de utilizar el aspartato 87 veces más como sustrato oxidativo que lipogénico. Conclusiones. La utilización del aspartato y su destino es afectado significativamente (p<0,05) por las concentraciones de Lac, Glc y NAA. ASPA tiene una alta actividad, siendo regulada por disponibilidad de lactato y por el incremento de la disponibilidad de glucosa.

During the perinatal period the concentration of N-acetyl-L-aspartate (NAA) produced by neurons increases. This substrate is absorbed by the astrocytes and hydrolyzed via aspartoacylase II (ASPA; EC 3.5.1.15) in acetate and aspartate. We propose that the aspartate may help in fulfilling the astrocyte metabolic requirements during the presuckling period. Objectives. To evaluate the astrocyte ability to use the aspartate as a metabolic substrate in perinatal physiological conditions, and to determine whether the aspartate utilization can be modified by changes in the concentration of glucose (Glc), lactate (LAC) and N-acetyl-L-aspartate (NAA) and whether these variations in concentration can regulate the enzymatic activity of the ASPA. Materials and methods. Quiescent cultures of neonatal astrocytes of Wistar rat were incubated with L-aspartate (0.5 mM) and L-[U-14C]-aspartate (2 μCi), to assess their ability to use them as oxidative and lipogenic substrates. The effect of varying concentrations of Lac, Glc and NAA on the use of aspartate (radiometry method) and the ASPA activity (spectrophotometry method) was evaluated in both presuckling and adult physiological conditions. Results. Astrocytes are able to use aspartate 87 times more as an oxidative substrate than a lipogenic substrate. Conclusions. The use of aspartate and its destiny are affected significantly (p<0.05) by the concentrations of Lac, Glc and NAA. ASPA has a high activity being regulated by lactate availability and the increased availability of glucose.

No período perinatal aumenta a concentração de N-acetil-L-aspartato (NAA) produzido pelos neurônios, este substrato é absorvido pelos astrócitos e hidrolisado por via aspartoacilasa II (ASPA, EC 3.5.1.15) em acetato e aspartato. Postula-se que o aspartato poderia ajudar no cumprimento das exigências metabólicas dos astrócitos durante a prelactância. Objetivos. Avaliar a capacidade dos astrócitos para utilizar o aspartato como substrato metabólico em condições fisiológicas perinatais e determinar se a utilização de aspartato pode ser alterada por variações nas concentrações de glicose (Glc), lactato (Lac) e N-acetil-L-aspartato (NAA) e se estas alterações na concentração podem regular a atividade enzimática da ASPA. Materiais e métodos. Incubaram-se culturas quiescentes de astrócitos neonatais de ratos Wistar com L-aspartato (0,5 mM) e L-[U-14C]-aspartato (2 μCi), para avaliar a sua capacidade de uso como substrato oxidativo e lipogênico. Determinou-se o efeito da variação das concentrações de Lac, Glc y NAA, e em condições fisiológicas perinatais como de adulto, sobre a utilização do aspartato (método radiométrico) e sobre a actividade do ASPA (método espectrofotométrico). Resultados. Demonstrou-se que os astrócitos estão em capacidade de usar o aspartato 87 vezes mais como substrato oxidativo do que lipogênico. Conclusões. O uso de aspartato e seu destino é afetado de forma significativa (p <0,05) pelas concentrações de Lac, Glc e ANA. ASPA tem uma alta atividade, sendo regulada pela disponibilidade de lactato e pelo aumento da disponibilidade de glicose.