Soy lysolecithin prevents hypertension and cognitive impairment induced in mice by high salt intake by inhibiting intestinal inflammation.

High salt (HS) intake induces hypertension and cognitive impairment. Preventive strategies include against dietary supplements. Soybean lecithin is a widely used phospholipid supplement. Lysolecithin is important in cell signaling, digestion, and absorption. This study aimed to investigate the effects of lysophosphatidylcholine containing >70% of the total phospholipids (LPC70), on hypertension and cognitive impairment induced in mice by HS intake. Mice were provided with HS solution (2% NaCl in drinking water) with or without LPC70 for 12 weeks. Blood pressure, cognitive function, and inflammatory response of intestine were determined. Hypertension and impaired object recognition memory induced by HS intake were implicated with increased inducible nitric oxide synthase in the small intestine and tau hyperphosphorylation in the prefrontal cortex. LPC70 treatment prevented cognitive impairment by suppressing inducible nitric oxide synthase and tau hyperphosphorylation. LPC70 may be valuable as a functional food component in preventing HS-induced cognitive impairment.

Ido2 Deficiency Exacerbates Motor Impairment and Reduces Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Activity through Decreased Kynurenine in a Chronic Demyelinating Mouse Model.

Demyelinating diseases including multiple sclerosis (MS) are chronic inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system. Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 2 (Ido2) is a recently identified as catalytic enzyme involved in the rate-limiting step of the tryptophan-kynurenine pathway that influences susceptibility to inflammatory diseases. However, the pathological role of Ido2 in demyelination remains unclear. In this study, we investigated whether Ido2 deficiency influences the pathogenesis of proteolipid protein transgenic (Plp tg) mice, an animal model of chronic demyelination. Ido2 deficiency exacerbates impairments of motor function in the locomotor activity test, wire hanging test, and rotarod test. Ido2 deficiency caused severe demyelination associated with CD68-positive microglial activation in Plp tg mice. In the cerebellum of Plp tg mice, Ido2 deficiency significantly increased the expression of Tnfα. Ido2 deficiency reduced tryptophan metabolite kynurenine (KYN) levels and subsequent aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activity, which play an important role in anti-inflammatory response. These results suggest that Ido2 has an important role in preventing demyelination through AhR. Taken together, Ido2 could be a potential therapeutic target for demyelinating diseases.

Social Behavior in Animal Models of Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by social deficits and stereotyped, repetitive patterns of behaviors, limited interests, and cognitive impairment. Especially, social deficit has been considered a core feature of ASD. Because of the limitations of the experimental approach in humans, valid animal models are essential in an effort to identify novel therapeutics for social deficits in ASD. The genetic and environmental factors are clinically relevant to the pathophysiology of ASD. Epidemiological studies demonstrate environmental interventions such as prenatal exposure to valproic acid (VPA). Prenatal exposure to VPA represents a robust model of ASD exhibiting face, construct, and predictive validity. Here, we introduce protocols of the social interaction test and the three-chamber test for evaluating social deficits in mice prenatally exposed to VPA.

Chronic social defeat stress induces the down-regulation of the Nedd4L-GLT-1 ubiquitination pathway in the prefrontal cortex of mice.

Stressful life events contribute to the onset of major depressive disorder (MDD). We recently demonstrated abnormalities in ubiquitination in the pathophysiology of MDD. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. We investigated the involvement of the ubiquitination system-mediated glutamatergic dysfunction in social impairment induced by chronic social defeat stress (CSDS). Adult C57BL/6J mice were exposed to aggressor ICR male mice for 10 consecutive days. Social impairment was induced by CSDS in the social interaction test 1 days after the last stress exposure. In terms of brain microdialysis, CSDS reduced depolarization-evoked glutamate release in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), which was reversed by a glutamate transporter 1 (GLT-1) inhibitor. Interestingly, the expression of ubiquitinated, but not total GLT-1, was decreased in the PFC of mice exposed to CSDS. The expression of neural precursor cells expressing developmentally downregulated gene 4-like (Nedd4L: E3 ligase for GLT-1), and ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2D2 (Ube2d2: E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme for Nedd4L) was also reduced in CSDS mice. Furthermore, the downregulation of the Nedd4L-GLT-1 ubiquitination pathway decreased SIT ratio, but up-regulation increased it even in non-CSDS mice. Taken together, the decrease in GLT-1 ubiquitination may reduce the release of extracellular glutamate induced by high-potassium stimulation, which may lead to social impairment, while we could not find differences in GLT-1 ubiquitination between susceptible and resistant CSDS mice. In conclusion, GLT-1 ubiquitination could play a crucial role in the pathophysiology of MDD and is an attractive target for the development of novel antidepressants.

Duloxetine improves chronic orofacial pain and comorbid depressive symptoms in association with reduction of serotonin transporter protein through upregulation of ubiquitinated serotonin transporter protein.

ABSTRACT: Chronic orofacial pain (COP) is relieved by duloxetine (DLX) and frequently causes depressive symptoms. The aim of this study was to confirm effects of DLX on pain and depressive symptoms, and to associate with their effectiveness in platelet serotonin transporter (SERT) expression, which is a target molecule of DLX and plasma serotonin concentration in COP patients with depressive symptoms. We assessed for the severity of pain and depressive symptoms using the Visual Analog Scale (VAS) and 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS), respectively. Chronic orofacial pain patients were classified into 2 groups based on their HDRS before DLX-treatment: COP patients with (COP-D) and without (COP-ND) depressive symptoms. We found that the VAS and HDRS scores of both groups were significantly decreased after DLX treatment compared with those before DLX treatment. Upregulation of total SERT and downregulation of ubiquitinated SERT were observed before DLX treatment in both groups compared with healthy controls. After DLX treatment, there were no differences in total SERT of both groups and in ubiquitinated SERT of COP-D patients compared with healthy controls; whereas, ubiquitinated SERT of COP-ND patients remained downregulated. There were positive correlations between changes of serotonin concentrations and of VAS or HDRS scores in only COP-D patients. Our findings indicate that DLX improves not only pain but also comorbid depressive symptoms of COP-D patients. Duloxetine also reduces platelet SERT through upregulation of ubiquitinated SERT. As the result, decrease of plasma serotonin concentrations may be related to the efficacy of DLX in relieving pain and depression in COP patients.

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 2 deficiency associates with autism-like behavior via dopaminergic neuronal dysfunction.

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 2 (IDO2) is an enzyme of the tryptophan-kynurenine pathway that is constitutively expressed in the brain. To provide insight into the physiological role of IDO2 in the brain, behavioral and neurochemical analyses in IDO2 knockout (KO) mice were performed. IDO2 KO mice showed stereotyped behavior, restricted interest and social deficits, traits that are associated with behavioral endophenotypes of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). IDO2 was colocalized immunohistochemically with tyrosine-hydroxylase-positive cells in dopaminergic neurons. In the striatum and amygdala of IDO2 KO mice, decreased dopamine turnover was associated with increased α-synuclein level. Correspondingly, levels of downstream dopamine D1 receptor signaling molecules such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor and c-Fos positive proteins were decreased. Furthermore, decreased abundance of ramified-type microglia resulted in increased dendritic spine density in the striatum of IDO2 KO mice. Both chemogenetic activation of dopaminergic neurons and treatment with methylphenidate, a dopamine reuptake inhibitor, ameliorated the ASD-like behavior of IDO2 KO mice. Sequencing analysis of exon regions in IDO2 from 309 ASD samples identified a rare canonical splice site variant in one ASD case. These results suggest that the IDO2 gene is, at least in part, a factor closely related to the development of psychiatric disorders.

High salt induces cognitive impairment via the interaction of the angiotensin II-AT1 and prostaglandin E2-EP1 systems.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: High salt (HS) intake has been associated with hypertension and cognitive impairment. It is well known that the angiotensin II (Ang II)-AT1 receptor and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2)-EP1 receptor systems are involved in hypertension and neurotoxicity. However, the involvement of these systems in HS-mediated hypertension and emotional and cognitive impairments remains unclear. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Mice were loaded with HS solution (2% NaCl drinking water) for 12 weeks, and blood pressure was monitored. Subsequently, effects of HS intake on emotional and cognitive function and tau phosphorylation in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus (HIP) were investigated. The involvement of Ang II-AT1 and PGE2-EP1 systems in HS-induced hypertension and neuronal and behavioural impairments was examined by treatment with losartan, an AT1 receptor blocker (ARB), or EP1 gene knockout. KEY RESULTS: We demonstrate that hypertension and impaired social behaviour and object recognition memory following HS intake may be associated with tau hyperphosphorylation, decreased phosphorylation of Ca2+ /calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII), and postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95) expression in the PFC and HIP of mice. These changes were blocked by pharmacological treatment with losartan or EP1 receptor gene knockout. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Our findings suggest that the interaction of Ang II-AT1 receptor and PGE2-EP1 receptor systems could be novel therapeutic targets for hypertension-induced cognitive impairment.

[Diagnoses and new therapeutic strategy focused on physiological alteration of tryptophan metabolism].

The monoamine hypothesis has been common hypotheses for the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder (MDD). Since mainstream antidepressants are selective serotonin (5-HT) reuptake inhibitors, hypo-serotonergic function has been implicated in the MDD. However, one-third of patients are refractory to the treatment with antidepressants. Tryptophan (TRP) is metabolized via the kynurenine (KYN) and 5-HT pathways. Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) is the first metabolizing enzyme in the TRP-KYN pathway which is inducible by pro-inflammatory cytokines, involved depression-like behavior via 5-HT depletion due to decreased level of TRP in the 5-HT pathway. Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (KMO) is the enzyme in the metabolism of KYN to 3-hydroxykynurenine. KMO deficiency increases level of kynurenic acid (KA), a KYN metabolite by kynurenine aminotransferases (KATs) and induces depression-like behavior. Interestingly, Chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) is associated with a disruption of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system and increases KA level with decreased KMO expression in the prefrontal cortex. The decrease of KMO may be related to the reduction in expression of microglia, since KMO is mainly found in microglia in the nervous system. CUMS increases KA level via alternation of enzymes from KMO to KAT. KA is α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) antagonist. Activation of α7nAChR by nicotine or galantamine attenuates CUMS-induced depression-like behaviors. Taken together, depletion of 5-HT by induction of IDO1 and α7nAChR antagonism by KA via decreased KMO expression cause depression-like behavior, suggesting that metabolic alterations in TRP-KYN pathway are highly involved in the pathophysiology of MDD. Therefore, TRP-KYN pathway is expected to be an attractive target for the development of novel diagnosis of MDD and antidepressants.

An evaluation method for developing abuse-deterrent opioid formulations with agonist and antagonist combinations using conditioned place preference.

Although opioids are useful narcotic analgesics in clinical settings, their misuse and addiction in the United States of America and other countries are rapidly increasing. Therefore, the development of abuse-deterrent formulations is an urgent issue. We herein investigated how to select the ratio of an opioid and the opioid receptor antagonist, naloxone in abuse-deterrent formulations for mice. The conditioned place preference (CPP) test was used to evaluate the rewarding effects of abused drugs. The opioids morphine (30 µmol/kg), oxycodone (3 µmol/kg), fentanyl (0.4 µmol/kg), and buprenorphine (0.5 µmol/kg) significantly induced place preference in mice. We also examined the optimal ratio of naloxone and opioids to inhibit the rewarding effects of the latter. Naloxone (3-5 µmol/kg) effectively inhibited place preference induced by the opioids tested. We calculated theoretical drug doses that exerted the same pharmacodynamic effects based on two parameters: µ-opioid receptor binding affinity and blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability. Theoretical doses were very close to the drug doses at which mice showed place preference. Therefore, the CPP test is useful as a behavioral method for evaluating abuse-deterrent formulations of opioids mixed with an antagonist. The ratio of naloxone with opioids, at which mice did not show place preference, may be an effective index for developing abuse-deterrent formulations. Ratios may be calculated for other opioids based on µ-opioid receptor binding affinity and BBB permeability.

Deficiency of kynurenine 3-monooxygenase exacerbates impairment of prepulse inhibition induced by phencyclidine.

Phencyclidine (PCP) causes mental symptoms that closely resemble schizophrenia through the inhibition of the glutamatergic system. The kynurenine (KYN) pathway (KP) generates metabolites that modulate glutamatergic systems such as kynurenic acid (KA), quinolinic acid (QA), and xanthurenic acid (XA). Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (KMO) metabolizes KYN to 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK), an upstream metabolite of QA and XA. Clinical studies have reported lower KMO mRNA and higher KA levels in the postmortem brains of patients with schizophrenia and exacerbation of symptoms in schizophrenia by PCP. However, the association between KMO deficiency and PCP remains elusive. Here, we demonstrated that a non-effective dose of PCP induced impairment of prepulse inhibition (PPI) in KMO KO mice. KA levels were increased in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus (HIP) of KMO KO mice, but 3-HK levels were decreased. In wild-type C57BL/6 N mice, the PPI impairment induced by PCP is exacerbated by KA, while attenuated by 3-HK, QA and XA. Taken together, KMO KO mice were vulnerable to the PPI impairment induced by PCP through an increase in KA and a decrease in 3-HK, suggesting that an increase in the ratio of KA to 3-HK (QA and XA) may play an important role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia.

Memantine ameliorates the impairment of social behaviors induced by a single social defeat stress as juveniles.

Clinically, juveniles are more sensitive to stress than adults, and exposure to stress as juveniles prolongs psychiatric symptoms and causes treatment resistance. However, the efficacy of antidepressants for juveniles with psychiatric disorders is unknown. In the present study, we investigated whether the expression or development of impaired social behavior was attenuated by memantine, a non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist. In addition, we clarified the molecular mechanisms related to intracellular signal transduction through NMDA receptors and the ameliorating effect of memantine in mice with impaired social behavior. Acute administration of memantine before the social interaction test, but not before exposure to social defeat stress, attenuated social behavioral impairment. A single social defeat stress increased the phosphorylation of NMDA receptor subunit GluN2A and extracellular-signal-related kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2). Memantine inhibited the increase of phosphorylated GluN2A and ERK1/2 resulting from social interaction behavior. In both GluN2A deficient and pharmacological blockaded mice, social behavioral impairment was not observed in the social interaction test through regulation of ERK1/2 phosphorylation. These findings suggest that memantine ameliorates social behavioral impairment in mice exposed to a single social defeat stress as juveniles by regulating the NMDA receptor and subsequent ERK1/2 signaling activation. Memantine may constitute a novel therapeutic drug for stress-related psychiatric disorders in juveniles with adverse juvenile experiences.

Loureirin C and Xanthoceraside Prevent Abnormal Behaviors Associated with Downregulation of Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor and AKT/mTOR/CREB Signaling in the Prefrontal Cortex Induced by Chronic Corticosterone Exposure in Mice.

Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is one of the most abundant neurotrophic factors, and its deficits are involved in the pathogenesis of major depressive disorders (MDD). Loureirin C (Lou C) is a compound derived from red resin extracted from the stems of Chinese dragon's blood. Xanthoceraside (Xan) is a triterpenoid saponin extracted from the husks of Xanthoceras sorbifolia Bunge. These compounds have neuroprotective effects through upregulation of BDNF. The present study aimed to evaluate whether Lou C and Xan attenuate abnormal behaviors induced by chronic corticosterone (CORT) administration. CORT was administered subcutaneously to mice for 3 weeks, and Lou C and Xan, dispensed orally once a day during the last 2 weeks of CORT administration. Chronic CORT administration induced abnormal behaviors such as prolonged starting latency in the open field test, decreased social interaction time in the social interaction test and prolonged latency to eat in the novelty suppressed feeding test. Chronic CORT administration decreased the expression levels of BDNF and the phosphorylation of protein kinase B (Akt), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), and the cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) in the prefrontal cortex. Lou C and Xan dose-dependently prevented the abnormal behaviors and decreased the expression levels of BDNF and in phosphorylation of AKT, mTOR, and CREB in the prefrontal cortex of CORT mice. These results suggest that Lou C and Xan could be attractive candidates for pharmacotherapy of MDD at least in part, given their propensity to increase BDNF expression and phosphorylation of AKT, mTOR, and CREB.

Loureirin C and Xanthoceraside Attenuate Depression-Like Behaviors and Expression of Interleukin-17 in the Prefrontal Cortex Induced by Chronic Unpredictable Mild Stress in Mice.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is the most prevalent and serious psychiatric disease involving inflammation. Loureirin C and Xanthoceraside are extracts of dragon's blood and Xanthoceras sorbifolia Bunge, respectively, which have neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, we examined whether Loureirin C and Xanthoceraside attenuated depression-like behaviors and inflammation induced by chronic unpredicted mild stress (CUMS) in mice. Adult C57BL/6 J mice exposed to CUMS for 4 weeks showed depression-like behaviors characterized by hyperactivity in a novel environment, decreased interaction time in the social interaction test, prolongation of eating latency in the novelty suppressed feeding test, and increased immobility in the forced swimming test. CUMS increased the expression of interleukin-17 (IL-17) in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). One week after exposure to CUMS, the mice were treated with Loureirin C (0.64 mg/kg) or Xanthoceraside (1.28 mg/kg) once a day for 3 weeks during CUMS. Loureirin C and Xanthoceraside significantly attenuated CUMS-induced behavioral impairment. Furthermore, both Loureirin C and Xanthoceraside prevented IL-17 expression induced by CUMS in the PFC. This data suggests that Loureirin C and Xanthoceraside have antidepressant-like properties that may be associated with the inhibition of IL-17 expression.

Phosphoproteomic of the acetylcholine pathway enables discovery of the PKC-ß-PIX-Rac1-PAK cascade as a stimulatory signal for aversive learning.

Acetylcholine is a neuromodulator critical for learning and memory. The cholinesterase inhibitor donepezil increases brain acetylcholine levels and improves Alzheimer's disease (AD)-associated learning disabilities. Acetylcholine activates striatal/nucleus accumbens dopamine receptor D2-expressing medium spiny neurons (D2R-MSNs), which regulate aversive learning through muscarinic receptor M1 (M1R). However, how acetylcholine stimulates learning beyond M1Rs remains unresolved. Here, we found that acetylcholine stimulated protein kinase C (PKC) in mouse striatal/nucleus accumbens. Our original kinase-oriented phosphoproteomic analysis revealed 116 PKC substrate candidates, including Rac1 activator ß-PIX. Acetylcholine induced ß-PIX phosphorylation and activation, thereby stimulating Rac1 effector p21-activated kinase (PAK). Aversive stimulus activated the M1R-PKC-PAK pathway in mouse D2R-MSNs. D2R-MSN-specific expression of PAK mutants by the Cre-Flex system regulated dendritic spine structural plasticity and aversive learning. Donepezil induced PAK activation in both accumbal D2R-MSNs and in the CA1 region of the hippocampus and enhanced D2R-MSN-mediated aversive learning. These findings demonstrate that acetylcholine stimulates M1R-PKC-ß-PIX-Rac1-PAK signaling in D2R-MSNs for aversive learning and imply the cascade's therapeutic potential for AD as aversive learning is used to preliminarily screen AD drugs.

Targeting α6GABAA receptors as a novel therapy for schizophrenia: A proof-of-concept preclinical study using various animal models.

GABAA receptors containing α6 subunits (α6GABAARs) in the cerebellum have -been implicated in schizophrenia. It was reported that the GABA synthesizing enzymes were downregulated whereas α6GABAARs were upregulated in postmortem cerebellar tissues of patients with schizophrenia and in a rat model induced by chronic phencyclidine (PCP). We have previously demonstrated that pyrazoloquinolinone Compound 6, an α6GABAAR-highly selective positive allosteric modulator (PAM), can rescue the disrupted prepulse inhibition (PPI) induced by methamphetamine (METH), an animal model mimicking the sensorimotor gating deficit based on the hyper-dopaminergic hypothesis of schizophrenia. Here, we demonstrate that not only Compound 6, but also its structural analogues, LAU463 and LAU159, with similarly high α6GABAAR selectivity and their respective deuterated derivatives (DK-I-56-1, DK-I-58-1 and DK-I-59-1) can rescue METH-induced PPI disruption. Besides, Compound 6 and DK-I-56-I can also rescue the PPI disruption induced by acute administration of PCP, an animal model based on the hypo-glutamatergic hypothesis of schizophrenia. Importantly, Compound 6 and DK-I-56-I, at doses not affecting spontaneous locomotor activity, can also rescue impairments of social interaction and novel object recognition in mice induced by chronic PCP treatments. At similar doses, Compound 6 did not induce sedation but significantly suppressed METH-induced hyperlocomotion. Thus, α6GABAAR-selective PAMs can rescue not only disrupted PPI but also hyperlocomotion, social withdrawal, and cognitive impairment, in both METH- and PCP-induced animal models mimicking schizophrenia, suggesting that they are a potential novel therapy for the three core symptoms, i.e. positive symptoms, negative symptoms, and cognitive impairment, of schizophrenia.

Duloxetine attenuates pain in association with downregulation of platelet serotonin transporter in patients with burning mouth syndrome and atypical odontalgia.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was evaluation of the association between severity of pain and expression of total or ubiquitinated serotonin transporter (SERT) protein in patients with burning mouth syndrome and atypical odontalgia (BMS/AO), who were treated by duloxetine. METHODS: Patients with BMS/AO were assessed for severity of pain using the visual analog scale (VAS), and expression of total and ubiquitinated SERT protein in platelets before (baseline) and 12 weeks after duloxetine-treatment. RESULTS: The expression of total and ubiquitinated SERT protein at baseline in all patients (n = 33) were higher and lower, respectively, compared to those in healthy controls. 12 weeks after duloxetine-treatment, there was no difference in the total SERT protein levels between patients (n = 21) and healthy controls. In the 16 patients who could be measured, mean VAS scores and total SERT protein levels were significantly decreased after the treatment, compared to those at baseline. There was tendency for a positive correlation between total SERT protein levels and VAS scores in these patients. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that duloxetine relieves pain in association with downregulation of platelet SERT expression in patients with BMS/AO.

Early postnatal inhibition of GLAST causes abnormalities of psychobehaviors and neuronal morphology in adult mice.

The importance of glutamate transporters in learning, memory, and emotion remains poorly understood; hence, in the present study, we investigated whether deficiency of pharmacological GLAST in neurodevelopmental processes affects cognitive and/or emotional behaviors in mice. The mice were injected with a glutamate transporter inhibitor, dl-threo-ß-benzyloxyaspartate (dl-TBOA), during the early postnatal period. At 8 weeks of age, they showed impairments in cognitive or emotional behaviors; dysfunction of glutamatergic neurotransmission (increased expressions of GLAST, GLT-1, or GFAP protein, and decreased ability of glutamate release) in the cortex or hippocampus; morphological changes (decreased cell size in the cortex and thickness of the pyramidal neuronal layer of the CA1 area in the hippocampus). Such behavioral and morphological changes were not observed in adult mice injected with dl-TBOA. These results suggest that GLAST plays an important role in the regulation of cognitive and emotional behaviors. Early postnatal glutamatergic facilitation by GLAST dysfunction leads to cognitive and emotional abnormalities due to neurodevelopmental abnormalities such as morphological changes.

Heat-sterilized Bifidobacterium breve prevents depression-like behavior and interleukin-1ß expression in mice exposed to chronic social defeat stress.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a common and serious psychiatric disease that involves brain inflammation. Bifidobacterium breve is commonly used as a probiotic and was shown to improve colitis and allergic diseases by suppressing the inflammatory response. Heat-sterilized B. breve has beneficial effects on inflammation. We hypothesize, therefore, that this probiotic might reduce depression symptoms. We tested this is a mouse model of social defeat stress. C57BL/6J mice exposed to chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) for five consecutive days developed a mild depression-like behavior characterized by a social interaction impairment. CSDS also altered the gut microbiota composition, such as increased abundance of Bacilli, Bacteroidia, Mollicutes, and Verrucomicrobiae classes and decreased Erysipelotrichi class. The prophylactic effect of heat-sterilized B. breve as a functional food ingredient was evaluated on the depression-like behavior in mice. The supplementation started two weeks before and lasted two weeks after the last exposure to CSDS. Two weeks after CSDS, the mice showed deficits in social interaction and increased levels of inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus (HIP). Heat-sterilized B. breve supplementation significantly prevented social interaction impairment, suppressed IL-1ß increase in the PFC and HIP, and modulated the alteration of the gut microbiota composition induced by CSDS. These findings suggest that heat-sterilized B. breve prevents depression-like behavior and IL-1ß expression induced by CSDS through modulation of the gut microbiota composition in mice. Therefore, heat-sterilized B. breve used as an ingredient of functional food might prevent MDD.

Multiple nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes regulate social or cognitive behaviors in mice repeatedly administered phencyclidine.

Habitual smoking in patients with schizophrenia (SCZ) is considered to improve their own psychoses or to develop a vulnerability to psychological dependence on (-)-nicotine ([-]-NIC) by stimulating nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in the central nervous system. In the present study, we investigated whether habitual smoking is due to get therapeutic effect or to psychological dependence and which nAChR subunits are associated with them using mice that were repeatedly administered phencyclidine (PCP: 10 mg/kg/day, s.c. for 14 days) as SCZ-like model mice. Mice that were repeatedly administered PCP showed impairments in social or cognitive behaviors; decreased expression of α7 and/or α4 nAChR subunits in the prefrontal cortex (PFC); and increased expression of α7, α4, and ß2 nAChR subunits in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). These changes were attenuated by repeated administration of (-)-NIC. The attenuating effects on behavioral impairments were prevented by a selective α7 nAChR antagonist and a selective α4ß2 nAChR antagonist. At non- or weak effective dose by themselves, co-administration of (-)-NIC (0.03 mg/kg) and risperidone (0.03 mg/kg) showed synergistic effects on behavioral impairments in PCP-administered mice. Repeated (-)-NIC administration did not affect the performance of conditioned place preference, while it showed behavioral sensitization to (-)-NIC in the PCP-administered mice. Repeated (-)-NIC administration did not affect the performance of conditioned place preference, while it showed behavioral sensitization to (-)-NIC and attenuating effect on haloperidol-induced catalepsy in the PCP-administered mice. Our findings suggest that habitual smoking in SCZ might be attributed to get therapeutic and reduce side effects mediated by α7 and α4ß2 nAChR activation by (-)-NIC.