The Effectiveness of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) in Binge Eating Disorder (BED)-Review and Insight into the Mechanisms of Action.

INTRODUCTION: Binge eating disorder (BED) is the most common eating disorder among those contributing to the development of obesity, and thus acts as a significant burden on the lives and health of patients. It is characterized by complex neurobiology, which includes changes in brain activity and neurotransmitter secretion. Existing treatments are moderately effective, and so the search for new therapies that are effective and safe is ongoing. AIM AND METHODS: This review examines the use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in the treatment of binge eating disorder. Searches were conducted on the PubMed/Medline, Research Gate, and Cochrane databases. RESULTS: Six studies were found that matched the review topic. All of them used the anodal stimulation of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) in BED patients. tDCS proved effective in reducing food cravings, the desire to binge eat, the number of binging episodes, and food intake. It also improved the outcomes of inhibitory control and the treatment of eating disorder psychopathology. The potential mechanisms of action of tDCS in BED are explained, limitations in current research are outlined, and recommendations for future research are provided. CONCLUSIONS: Preliminary evidence suggests that the anodal application of tDCS to the right DLPFC reduces the symptoms of BED. However, caution should be exercised in the broader use of tDCS in this context due to the small number of studies performed and the small number of patients included. Future studies should incorporate neuroimaging and neurophysiological measurements to elucidate the potential mechanisms of action of tDCS in BED.

The Effectiveness of Mindfulness in the Treatment of Methamphetamine Addiction Symptoms: Does Neuroplasticity Play a Role?

INTRODUCTION: Methamphetamine is a highly stimulating psychoactive drug that causes life-threatening addictions and affects millions of people around the world. Its effects on the brain are complex and include disturbances in the neurotransmitter systems and neurotoxicity. There are several known treatment methods, but their effectiveness is moderate. It must be emphasised that no drugs have been approved for treatment. For this reason, there is an urgent need to develop new, effective, and safe treatments for methamphetamine. One of the potential treatments is mindfulness meditation. In recent years, this technique has been researched extensively in the context of many neurological and psychiatric disorders. METHODS: This review explores the use of mindfulness in the treatment of methamphetamine addiction. Searches were conducted in the PubMed/Medline, Research Gate, and Cochrane databases. RESULTS: Ten studies were identified that used mindfulness-based interventions in the treatment of methamphetamine addiction. The results show that mindfulness is an effective form of reducing hunger, risk of relapses, stress indicators, depression, and aggression, alone or in combination with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Mindfulness also improved the cognitive function in addicts. The included studies used only behavioural measures. The potential mechanisms of mindfulness in addiction were explained, and it was proposed that it can induce neuroplasticity, alleviating the symptoms of addiction. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence from the studies suggest that mindfulness may be an effective treatment option for methamphetamine addiction, used alone or in combination with tDCS. However, further high-quality research is required to establish the role of this treatment option in this field. The use of neuroimaging and neurophysiological measures is fundamental to understand the mechanisms of mindfulness.

Effect of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) on Depression in Parkinson's Disease-A Narrative Review.

INTRODUCTION: Depression is the most prevalent comorbid neuropsychiatric condition in individuals with Parkinson's disease (PD), and its underlying mechanisms are not yet fully understood. Current treatment methods are characterised by moderate effectiveness and possible side effects, prompting the search for new non-invasive and safe treatment methods. METHODS: This narrative review explores the use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in the treatment of depression in PD, based on neuropsychological measures. Searches were conducted in the PubMed/Medline, Research Gate, and Cochrane databases. RESULTS: Nine relevant studies were identified, where depression scores served as either primary or secondary outcomes. Stimulation protocols displayed heterogeneity, especially concerning choice of stimulation site. Patient samples were also heterogeneous. The majority of the studies incorporated anodal stimulation targeting the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). The results revealed a reduction in depression scores among PD patients following tDCS. Potential mechanisms through which tDCS may alleviate depression in PD were discussed and recommendations for future research were made. CONCLUSIONS: Preliminary evidence suggests that tDCS applied anodally to the left DLPFC reduces depression scores in people with PD; however, due to the heterogeneity of the studies analysed, the use of tDCS in this field should be approached with caution and warrants further validation and confirmation.

EEG in Down Syndrome-A Review and Insights into Potential Neural Mechanisms.

Introduction: Down syndrome (DS) stands out as one of the most prevalent genetic disorders, imposing a significant burden on both society and the healthcare system. Scientists are making efforts to understand the neural mechanisms behind the pathophysiology of this disorder. Among the valuable methods for studying these mechanisms is electroencephalography (EEG), a non-invasive technique that measures the brain's electrical activity, characterised by its excellent temporal resolution. This review aims to consolidate studies examining EEG usage in individuals with DS. The objective was to identify shared elements of disrupted EEG activity and, crucially, to elucidate the neural mechanisms underpinning these deviations. Searches were conducted on Pubmed/Medline, Research Gate, and Cochrane databases. Results: The literature search yielded 17 relevant articles. Despite the significant time span, small sample size, and overall heterogeneity of the included studies, three common features of aberrant EEG activity in people with DS were found. Potential mechanisms for this altered activity were delineated. Conclusions: The studies included in this review show altered EEG activity in people with DS compared to the control group. To bolster these current findings, future investigations with larger sample sizes are imperative.

Multi-omics data integration methods and their applications in psychiatric disorders.

To study mental illness and health, in the past researchers have often broken down their complexity into individual subsystems (e.g., genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, clinical data) and explored the components independently. Technological advancements and decreasing costs of high throughput sequencing has led to an unprecedented increase in data generation. Furthermore, over the years it has become increasingly clear that these subsystems do not act in isolation but instead interact with each other to drive mental illness and health. Consequently, individual subsystems are now analysed jointly to promote a holistic understanding of the underlying biological complexity of health and disease. Complementing the increasing data availability, current research is geared towards developing novel methods that can efficiently combine the information rich multi-omics data to discover biologically meaningful biomarkers for diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis. However, clinical translation of the research is still challenging. In this review, we summarise conventional and state-of-the-art statistical and machine learning approaches for discovery of biomarker, diagnosis, as well as outcome and treatment response prediction through integrating multi-omics and clinical data. In addition, we describe the role of biological model systems and in silico multi-omics model designs in clinical translation of psychiatric research from bench to bedside. Finally, we discuss the current challenges and explore the application of multi-omics integration in future psychiatric research. The review provides a structured overview and latest updates in the field of multi-omics in psychiatry.

Changes in adipokine concentrations in antidepressant-resistant bipolar depression after ketamine infusion and electroconvulsive therapy.

OBJECTIVES: This study attempts to assess the concentration of two opposite-acting adipokines (anti-inflammatory adiponectin and pro-inflammatory resistin) in antidepressant-resistant patients undergoing ketamine infusion (KI) and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). METHODS: The study group comprised 52 patients hospitalised due to episodes of depression in the course of bipolar disorders. The Hamilton depression scale was used to assess the intensity of the depression symptoms before starting therapy and one day after its completion. The serum concentration of adipokines was determined before and after the therapeutic intervention using an ELISA method. RESULTS: Baseline adipokine levels differed between patients receiving KI and ECT therapy. Regardless of the procedure used, these levels changed after treatment, with the nature of these changes being different. In the case of KI, the adiponectin levels increased, and resistin levels decreased. In contrast, after ECT, the concentrations of both adipokines decreased. Changes in adipokine concentrations correlated with improvement in mental status, as assessed by the Hamilton Rating Scale, type of bipolar disorder, and gender. CONCLUSIONS: Adipokines remain interesting candidate biomarkers in assessing the state and course of the disease depending on the therapeutic procedure applied. However, the relatively small study group and limited original research available for discussion justify further investigation.

Evolutionary aspects of bipolar affective illness. / Ewolucyjne aspekty choroby afektywnej dwubiegunowej.

Bipolar affective illness (bipolar disorder - BD), also known as manic-depressive illness, is characterized by periodic opposite states of mood, activity, and motivation (mania and depression) sometimes of extreme intensity. The development and maintenance of such states in evolution can betoken a possibility of their adaptive character, enabling adaptation to an unfavorable external situation (depression) and a mobilization to using resources when available (mania). In the article, the main focus is put on the evolutionary aspect of "bipolarity" and manic/hypomanic states. Molecular-genetic studies show that in evolution, the genes connected with a predisposition to BD have been conserved. In the paper, the evolutionary adaptive concepts connected with the functioning of Homo sapiens during the middle and late Pleistocene periods were discussed as well as the "mismatch" theories associated with not befitting brain functioning to contemporary conditions. The benefits of mania and hypomania, also in the context of their link to depression were delineated, indicating their relationship to the increase in reproductive success. They result from such features of mania/hypomania as increased exploratory, psychomotor and sexual activity, and prompt risk-taking. The reproductive success can be connected with hyperthymic and cyclothymic temperaments, most frequently occurring in subjects with BD. The hyperthymic temperament often leads to increased social status and a tendency to leadership, and the cyclothymic temperament can increase creativity. Examples of the relationship between manic/hypomanic states and the phenomenon of emigration as well as the advancement of American society are provided.

An integrated precision medicine approach in major depressive disorder: a study protocol to create a new algorithm for the prediction of treatment response.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is the most common psychiatric disease worldwide with a huge socio-economic impact. Pharmacotherapy represents the most common option among the first-line treatment choice; however, only about one third of patients respond to the first trial and about 30% are classified as treatment-resistant depression (TRD). TRD is associated with specific clinical features and genetic/gene expression signatures. To date, single sets of markers have shown limited power in response prediction. Here we describe the methodology of the PROMPT project that aims at the development of a precision medicine algorithm that would help early detection of non-responder patients, who might be more prone to later develop TRD. To address this, the project will be organized in 2 phases. Phase 1 will involve 300 patients with MDD already recruited, comprising 150 TRD and 150 responders, considered as extremes phenotypes of response. A deep clinical stratification will be performed for all patients; moreover, a genomic, transcriptomic and miRNomic profiling will be conducted. The data generated will be exploited to develop an innovative algorithm integrating clinical, omics and sex-related data, in order to predict treatment response and TRD development. In phase 2, a new naturalistic cohort of 300 MDD patients will be recruited to assess, under real-world conditions, the capability of the algorithm to correctly predict the treatment outcomes. Moreover, in this phase we will investigate shared decision making (SDM) in the context of pharmacogenetic testing and evaluate various needs and perspectives of different stakeholders toward the use of predictive tools for MDD treatment to foster active participation and patients' empowerment. This project represents a proof-of-concept study. The obtained results will provide information about the feasibility and usefulness of the proposed approach, with the perspective of designing future clinical trials in which algorithms could be tested as a predictive tool to drive decision making by clinicians, enabling a better prevention and management of MDD resistance.

The Effect of Physical Activity on Neurotrophin Concentrations and Cognitive Control in Patients With a Depressive Episode.

Background: Cognitive deficits occur in most patients with affective disorders. The role of neurotrophic factors (e.g., BDNF) as modulators of brain plasticity affecting neurocognitive abilities has been emphasized. Neurotrophin concentrations may change under the influence of various interventions, including physical activity. Selected studies have shown that cognitive function may also be affected by exercise. Aim: The aim of the study was to determine whether physical activity changes the concentration of neurotrophins and their receptors in patients with an episode of depression. It was also examined how one session of aerobic exercise affects cognitive control. Methods: The study included 41 participants. The subjects were asked to exercise on a cycloergometer for 40 min with individually selected exercise loads (70% VO2max). Before and shortly after the exercise blood samples were acquired to perform blood assays (proBDNF, BDNF, TrkB, NGFR). The participants also performed a Stroop test twice-before the exercise and 10 min after its cessation. Results: The single bout of physical exercise did not cause any significant changes in the concentration of neurotrophic factors. The SCWT results: both the mean reading time (29.3 s vs. 47.8 s) and the color naming time (36.7 s vs. 50.7 s) increased. The patients made more mistakes after physical exercise, both in part A (0.2 vs. 1.5) and B (0.6 vs. 1.5). The so-called interference effect decreased-the difference between naming and reading times was smaller after exercise (6.2 s vs. 2.4 s). No significant correlations were found between the concentrations of the studied neurotrophic factors and the Stroop test results. Conclusions: The results did not confirm changes in neurotrophin concentration under the influence of a single session of physical activity. The shortening of the interference time after exercise may be caused by practice effects. A significant limitation of the study is the use of the Stroop test twice in short intervals.

Decreased leucocyte telomere length in male patients with chronic bipolar disorder: lack of effect of long-term lithium treatment.

OBJECTIVES: Bipolar disorder (BD) may be connected with accelerated aging, the marker of this can be shorter telomere length (TL). Some data suggest that lithium may exert a protective effect against telomere shortening. The study aimed to compare the TL between patients with BD and control subjects. The effect of long-term lithium treatment was also assessed. METHODS: The study group comprised 41 patients with BD, including 29 patients treated longitudinally with lithium (mean 16.5 years) and 20 healthy people. TL was assessed by the quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). RESULTS: In the control group, the TL was significantly longer in males than in females. Male bipolar patients had significantly shorter TL compared with the control male group. In bipolar patients, there was no correlation between TL and duration of treatment. The TL was negatively correlated with age in male bipolar patients. CONCLUSIONS: The study did not confirm the lithium effect on TL in bipolar patients. TL showed gender differences, being shorter in BD males, compared to control males, and longer in healthy males, compared to control females.

Evaluation of the frequency of ADIPOQ c.45 T>G and ADIPOQ c.276 G>T polymorphisms in adiponectin coding gene in girls with anorexia nervosa.

INTRODUCTION: Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a serious chronic psychosomatic disorder, the essence of which are attempts by the sufferer to obtain a slim silhouette by deliberate weight loss (restrictive diet, strenuous physical exercise, provoking vomiting). The aetiology of this disorder is multifactorial. Genetic factors that influence the predisposition to AN have been sought. A broad meta-analysis points to a strong genetic correlation between AN and insulin resistance. Adiponectin (ADIPO) increases insulin sensitivity. In our pilot study we demonstrated that the TT genotype in locus ADIPOQ c.276 G>T of the ADIPO gene and a higher concentration of ADIPO in blood serum occurred significantly more frequently in 68 girls suffering from AN than in 38 healthy girls. The objective of this study was to evaluate the frequency of the occurrence of ADIPOQ c.45 T>G and ADIPOQ c.276 G>T in the ADIPO gene in a larger cohort of girls with AN and healthy girls, as well as an analysis of correlations between variants of the aforementioned polymorphisms and the levels of ADIPO in blood serum. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study covered 472 girls (age: 11-19 years): 308 with the restrictive form of AN (AN) and 164 healthy girls (C). The level of ADIPO in blood serum was determined by means of the ELISA method on a Bio-Vendor, LLC (Asheville, North Carolina, USA). The DNA isolation was carried out by means of Genomic Mini AX BLOOD (SPIN). The PCR reaction was carried out in a ThermoCycle T100 thermocycler. 80-150 ng of the studied DNA and relevant F and R starters were added to the reaction mixture. The reaction products were subjected to digestion by restriction enzymes and separated on agarose gels (RFLP). RESULTS: The distribution of genotypes in the polymorphic site ADP c.45 of the ADIPO gene and ADP c.276 was similar in both groups. In both groups the T allele was most frequent in locus ADIPOQ c.45 and the G allele in locus ADIPOQ c.276. In all the study subjects collectively (AN and C) a statistically significant negative correlation between the levels of ADIPO in blood serum on one hand and body weight (r = -0.46; p < 0.0001) and BMI (r = -0.67; p < 0.0001) on the other was demonstrated. Exclusively in the AN group a significant correlation between the level of ADIPO in blood and the distribution of TG, TT, and GG alleles in loci ADIPOQ c.45 and ADIPOQ c.276 was demonstrated (p = 0.0052 and p < 0.0001, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: The genotype in loci ADIPOQ c.45 and ADIPOQ c.276 of the ADIPO gene seems to have no effect on the predisposition to AN. Girls suffering from AN with the TT genotype in loci ADIPOQ c.45 and ADIPOQ c. 276 may demonstrate higher insulin sensitivity because they have significantly higher levels of ADIPO than girls suffering from AN with other genotypes. This may be suggestive of their better adaptation to the state of malnutrition, and it has a potential effect on treatment results.

Evaluation of the frequency of RETN c.62G>A and RETN c.-180C>G polymorphisms in the resistin coding gene in girls with anorexia nervosa.

INTRODUCTION: Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a serious psychosomatic syndrome, classified as an eating disorder. AN patients strive to lose weight below the normal limits defined for a specific age and height, achieving their goal even at the expense of extreme emaciation. AN has a multifactorial aetiology. Genetic factors are believed to be significant in the predisposition to the development of AN. In girls suffering from AN significantly lower levels of resistin (RES) in blood serum are observed as compared to healthy girls. These differences may lead to a thesis that functional genetic polymorphisms in RES coding genes can be responsible for this phenomenon. In our pilot study we demonstrated significant differences in the distribution of genotypes in the locus RETN c.-180C>G of the RES gene in 67 girls with AN and 38 healthy girls. It seems reasonable to compare the frequency of polymorphisms of RETN c.62G>A and RETN c.-180C>G in the RES gene in girls with AN and in healthy subjects in a bigger cohort and to analyse correlations between individual variants of the polymorphisms referred to above and the RES levels in blood plasma. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study covered 308 girls with the restrictive form of AN (AN) and 164 healthy girls (C) (aged 11-19 years). The RES levels in blood serum were determined by means of the ELISA method on a Bio-Vendor machine from LLC (Asheville, North Carolina, USA). The DNA isolation was carried out by means of Genomic Mini AX BLOOD (SPIN). The PCR reaction was carried out on a ThermoCycle T100 thermocycler. 80-150 ng of the studied DNA and relevant F and R starters were added to the reaction mixture. The reaction products were subjected to digestion by restriction enzymes and separated on agarose gels (RFLP). RESULTS: The average RES level in blood serum in the AN group was significantly lower (p < 0.0001) than in the C group. The distribution of genotypes in the locus RETN c.62 of the RES gene was similar in both groups. A significant difference was demonstrated in the distribution of genotypes in the polymorphic site RETN c.-180 of the RES gene between AN and C (p = 0.0145) and in the distribution of the C and G alleles in the locus RETN c.-180 (p < 0.0001). The C allele occurred significantly more frequently than the G allele in the C group as compared to the AN group. In all the study subjects jointly (AN and C) a significant positive correlation between the blood RES levels on one hand and the body mass (r = 0.42; p < 0.0001) and BMI (r = 0.61; p< 0.0001) on the other was observed. There was no correlation between the concentration of RES in blood serum and the distribution of genotypes in the loci of the resistin gene referred to above. CONCLUSIONS: The CG genotype in the locus RETN c.-180 C>G of the RES gene may constitute one of the factors predisposing to the development of AN in girls. The genotype in the loci RETN c.62 G>A and RETN c.-180 C>G of the resistin gene has no influence on the levels of this hormone in blood in AN patients.

The influence of Nordic walking on the general functioning and cognitive performance of patients with Alzheimer's disease.

Purpose: Most studies show that physical activity (PA) can inhibit the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). This research aimed to investigate the effect of 3-month moderate PA on the general functioning and cognitive abilities of AD patients. Methods: The study included 32 patients with mild or moderate AD who scored 11-23 points in Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Half of the participants were qualified to perform the exercises; the other half constituted the control group. The recommended form of activity was Nordic walking, 30 minutes, 3 days a week, for 3 months, under the supervision of the patient's carer. General functioning and the severity of cognitive deficits were assessed using the Activities of Daily Living (ADL) scale and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment scale (MoCA) before and after the 3-month study. Results: No improvement was observed in the overall functioning of the patients after 3 months of regular, moderate PA. Neither were there any differences in this respect between the active and inactive groups, both in patients with mild (MMSE 19-23) and moderate (MMSE 11-18) disease severity. Men showed a deterioration in overall functioning regardless of PA. No differences in cognitive functioning were observed between the active and inactive groups, the two genders or between mild (MMSE 19-23) and moderate (MMSE 11-18) subjects. Conclusions: The 3-month, moderate, Nordic walking PA did not improve the overall general functioning or cognitive performance in patients with mild or moderate AD.

Treatment-resistant depression: Neurobiological correlates and the effect of sleep deprivation with sleep phase advance for the augmentation of pharmacotherapy.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the neurobiology of treatment-resistant depression (TRD), and factors connected with improvement after total sleep deprivation (TSD) with sleep phase advance (SPA), for the augmentation of pharmacotherapy. METHODS: The study comprised 43 patients with TRD, (15 male, 28 female), aged 48 ± 13 years, with the illness duration 12 ± 9 years, and the depressive episode 8 ± 7 months. TRD was defined as a lack of significant improvement despite at least two antidepressant treatments and the augmentation with mood-stabilisers. Clinical improvement (response) was a reduction of ≥50% of points in the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS), and the remission criterion was ≤7 points in HDRS, lasting until the 14th day after TSD + SPA. RESULTS: TRD severity was associated with greater activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, the pro-inflammatory status of the immune system and lower reactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis. The response was achieved by 18 of 42 subjects, and connected with the later onset and shorter duration of the disease. In responders, there was a decrease in cortisol and interferon-gamma. In all subjects, a decrease in thyroid hormones was observed. CONCLUSIONS: TRD can improve after augmentation of pharmacotherapy by TSD + SPA and some biological changes may be compatible with a decrease in allostatic load.

Psychiatric Symptoms as the First or Solitary Manifestation of Somatic Illnesses: Hyperammonaemia Type II.

AIM: We describe the difficulties encountered in making a diagnosis where a somatic condition manifests itself alongside psychiatric symptoms associated with possible psychiatric comorbidities. METHODS: A case study is presented of a 15-year-old girl who was eventually diagnosed with ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC) deficiency (hyperammonaemia type II), following an initial diagnosis of pervasive developmental disorder, selective mutism, and anorexia nervosa. RESULTS: The OTC disease is not fully expressed in females and its prevalence is lower than in males. Around 17-20% of female patients found with a defective OTC gene on an X chromosome can suffer from OTC deficiency that may result in elevated levels of ammonia in the blood; this occurs when one of the X chromosomes become inactivated. Patients typically present with nausea, migraines, and a history of dietary protein avoidance. In more severe cases, ataxia, confusion, hallucinations, and cerebral oedema can occur. The OTC deficiency can thus remain undiagnosed in women for many years. CONCLUSION: Somatic comorbidity in psychiatric inpatients is commonly found; however, such disorders are rarely diagnosed or even treated adequately.

Non-pharmacological treatments of inpatients with major depression - The case of Polish (Poznan) and German (Kiel) hospital.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Although the treatment of depression should be comprehensive, there is insufficient information about non-pharmacological interventions used during hospitalization. Hence, the aim was to compare non-pharmacological interventions used in psychiatry clinics in Kiel (Germany) and Poznan (Poland). METHODS AND MATERIALS: The retrospective study covered all patients hospitalized in 2016 (F32 or F33). Out of 545 patients hospitalized in 2016 in both centers, the analysis concerns 322 records from Kiel and 168 from Poznan. RESULTS: Non-pharmacological treatments were used in both centers. However, in Kiel there were more therapeutic options. Contrary to Poznan, patients in Kiel used therapies like "Kneippen", Qigong, and light therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Implementing Tai Chi in Kiel would be interesting to develop the scope of used interventions. Investment in non-pharmacological treatment should be a priority for healthcare decision-makers in Poland. The wide range of non-pharmacological interventions should be commonly accessible to provide the most comprehensive treatment.

Dysfunctions of the retina and other elements of the visual system in schizophrenia. / Zaburzenia funkcji siatkówki i innych elementów ukladu wzrokowego w schizofrenii.

Schizophrenia is an illness with a large variety of symptoms, significant variability of the individual course, and still not fully explained etiology. It is suggested that genetic, infectious and immunological factors may be involved, and neurodevelopmental, neurodegenerative and neurotransmitter hypotheses have been proposed. Detection of the measurable and reproducible biological indicators of the clinical picture and the course, referred to as biomarkers, may be essential to elucidate the etiopathogenic mechanism of the illness. For schizophrenia, this function may be performed by the retina of the eye and other elements of the visual pathway. The observed abnormalities are of a structural and functional nature. They concern virtually the entire visual system, and, in accordance with the neurodevelopmental theory of schizophrenia, arise at the early stages of brain formation. What is essential - the specific structure of the human eye, its translucency, lack of myelin and low concentration of glial cells provide excellent opportunities for non-invasive assessment of the microstructure and function of the central nervous system. The following paper discusses the most important changes in the visual apparatus observed in patients with schizophrenia. Particular attention was paid to retinal vascular changes, anomalies in the electroretinogram and optical coherence tomography, structural and functional disorders of cortical centers and neurochemical disorders in the cells of the visual pathway.

Psychiatric disorders in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. / Wystepowanie zaburzen psychicznych u kobiet z zespolem policystycznych jajników.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most commonly diagnosed endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age, affecting approximately 5-8% of females in this group. It is characterized by hyperandrogenism, abnormal periods (rare periods or amenorrhea) and polycystic ovaries visualized through ultrasonography. The etiopathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome has not been elucidated in detail. There are numerous hypotheses on this subject which tend to complement one another. The most widely recognized hypothesis is that the development of PCOS is due to insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia, which subsequently lead to hyperandrogenism. On the basis of an as of yet relatively small number of studies, an increased prevalence of various psychiatric disorders can be observed in women with PCOS. These include: depression, generalized anxiety disorder, personality disorders, social phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and eating disorders. Bipolar affective disorder, schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders have also been reported in women with PCOS more often than in the general population. The higher prevalence of psychiatric disorders in patients with PCOS, especially depression and anxiety disorders, may be due to both hyperandrogenism and the resulting somatic symptoms. These symptoms can undoubtedly be stigmatizing for women and lower their quality of life. This article is intended to provide an overview of the literature regarding mental disorders associated with polycystic ovary syndrome and to present own research on depression and sexual dysfunction in this group.

Interaction between polymorphisms of the oxytocinergic system genes and emotion perception in inpatients with anorexia nervosa.

OBJECTIVE: The empirical literature describes the role of the oxytocinergic system in emotion perception (EP). Variants in the oxytocin (OXT) and oxytocin receptor genes have been associated with mental disorders, including anorexia nervosa (AN), that are characterized by difficulties in socioemotional functioning. Our study aimed to examine whether variability within the genes related to OXT pathways may play a role in facial EP in inpatients with AN. METHOD: Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the following genes: oxytocin receptor (rs2254298, rs53576), OXT (rs6133010), OXT-arginine-vasopressin (rs2740204), CD38 (rs6449197, rs3796863), and human leucyl/cystinylaminopeptidase (rs4869317) were genotyped in 60 AN female inpatients and 60 healthy control females (HCs). Associations between genetic polymorphisms and EP as well as clinical symptoms were examined. RESULTS: The AN group showed decreased EP abilities compared with HCs. SNPs of rs2740204, rs6133010, and rs53576 were associated with differences in EP in women with AN and in HCs. The SNP of rs4869317 was associated with the level of eating disorders symptoms in HCs. CONCLUSIONS: The OXT system may be involved in EP difficulties in AN. SNPs within genes related to OXT pathways may influence EP abilities. The leucyl/cystinylaminopeptidase rs4869317 SNP may be involved in the development of eating disorders psychopathology.