Osteomyelitis is associated with increased anti-inflammatory response and immune exhaustion.

Introduction: Osteomyelitis (OMS) is a bone infection causing bone pain and severe complications. A balanced immune response is critical to eradicate infection without harming the host, yet pathogens manipulate immunity to establish a chronic infection. Understanding OMS-driven inflammation is essential for disease management, but comprehensive data on immune profiles and immune cell activation during OMS are lacking. Methods: Using high-dimensional flow cytometry, we investigated the detailed innate and adaptive systemic immune cell populations in OMS and age- and sex-matched controls. Results: Our study revealed that OMS is associated with increased levels of immune regulatory cells, namely T regulatory cells, B regulatory cells, and T follicular regulatory cells. In addition, the expression of immune activation markers HLA-DR and CD86 was decreased in OMS, while the expression of immune exhaustion markers TIM-3, PD-1, PD-L1, and VISTA was increased. Members of the T follicular helper (Tfh) cell family as well as classical and typical memory B cells were significantly increased in OMS individuals. We also found a strong correlation between memory B cells and Tfh cells. Discussion: We conclude that OMS skews the host immune system towards the immunomodulatory arm and that the Tfh memory B cell axis is evident in OMS. Therefore, immune-directed therapies may be a promising alternative for eradication and recurrence of infection in OMS, particularly in individuals and areas where antibiotic resistance is a major concern.

Transplanting old organs promotes senescence in young recipients.

In clinical organ transplantation, donor and recipient ages may differ substantially. Old donor organs accumulate senescent cells that have the capacity to induce senescence in naïve cells. We hypothesized that the engraftment of old organs may induce senescence in younger recipients, promoting age-related pathologies. When performing isogeneic cardiac transplants between age-mismatched C57BL/6 old donor (18 months) mice and young and middle-aged C57BL/6 (3- or 12- month-old) recipients , we observed augmented frequencies of senescent cells in draining lymph nodes, adipose tissue, livers, and hindlimb muscles 30 days after transplantation. These observations went along with compromised physical performance and impaired spatial learning and memory abilities. Systemic levels of the senescence-associated secretory phenotype factors, including mitochondrial DNA (mt-DNA), were elevated in recipients. Of mechanistic relevance, injections of mt-DNA phenocopied effects of age-mismatched organ transplantation on accelerating aging. Single treatment of old donor animals with senolytics prior to transplantation attenuated mt-DNA release and improved physical capacities in young recipients. Collectively, we show that transplanting older organs induces senescence in transplant recipients, resulting in compromised physical and cognitive capacities. Depleting senescent cells with senolytics, in turn, represents a promising approach to improve outcomes of older organs.

Stepwise differentiation of follicular helper T cells reveals distinct developmental and functional states.

Follicular helper T (Tfh) cells are essential for the formation of high affinity antibodies after vaccination or infection. Although the signals responsible for initiating Tfh differentiation from naïve T cells have been studied, the signals controlling sequential developmental stages culminating in optimal effector function are not well understood. Here we use fate mapping strategies for the cytokine IL-21 to uncover sequential developmental stages of Tfh differentiation including a progenitor-like stage, a fully developed effector stage and a post-effector Tfh stage that maintains transcriptional and epigenetic features without IL-21 production. We find that progression through these stages are controlled intrinsically by the transcription factor FoxP1 and extrinsically by follicular regulatory T cells. Through selective deletion of Tfh stages, we show that these cells control antibody dynamics during distinct stages of the germinal center reaction in response to a SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. Together, these studies demonstrate the sequential phases of Tfh development and how they promote humoral immunity.

IL-21-producing effector Tfh cells promote B cell alloimmunity in lymph nodes and kidney allografts.

Follicular helper T (Tfh) cells have been implicated in controlling rejection after allogeneic kidney transplantation, but the precise subsets, origins, and functions of Tfh cells in this process have not been fully characterized. Here we show that a subset of effector Tfh cells marked by previous IL-21 production is potently induced during allogeneic kidney transplantation and is inhibited by immunosuppressive agents. Single-cell RNA-Seq revealed that these lymph node (LN) effector Tfh cells have transcriptional and clonal overlap with IL-21-producing kidney-infiltrating Tfh cells, implicating common origins and developmental trajectories. To investigate the precise functions of IL-21-producing effector Tfh cells in LNs and allografts, we used a mouse model to selectively eliminate these cells and assessed allogeneic B cell clonal dynamics using a single B cell culture system. We found that IL-21-producing effector Tfh cells were essential for transplant rejection by regulating donor-specific germinal center B cell clonal dynamics both systemically in the draining LN and locally within kidney grafts. Thus, IL-21-producing effector Tfh cells have multifaceted roles in Ab-mediated rejection after kidney transplantation by promoting B cell alloimmunity.

MHC Tetramers Specifically Identify High- and Low-avidity Donor-specific B Cells in Transplantation Tolerance and Rejection.

BACKGROUND: Although donor-specific antibody pre- and posttransplantation is routinely assessed, accurate quantification of memory alloreactive B cells that mediate recall antibody response remains challenging. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) tetramers have been used to identify alloreactive B cells in mice and humans, but the specificity of this approach has not been rigorously assessed. METHODS: B-cell receptors from MHC tetramer-binding single B cells were expressed as mouse recombinant immunoglobulin G1 (rIgG1) monoclonal antibodies, and the specificity was assessed with a multiplex bead assay. Relative binding avidity of rIgG1 was measured by modified dilution series technique and surface plasmon resonance. Additionally, immunoglobulin heavy chain variable regions of 50 individual B-cell receptors were sequenced to analyze the rate of somatic hypermutation. RESULTS: The multiplex bead assay confirmed that expressed rIgG1 monoclonal antibodies were preferentially bound to bait MHC class II I-E d over control I-A d and I-A b tetramers. Furthermore, the dissociation constant 50 binding avidities of the rIgG1 ranged from 10 mM to 7 nM. The majority of tetramer-binding B cells were low avidity, and ~12.8% to 15.2% from naive and tolerant mice and 30.9% from acute rejecting mice were higher avidity (dissociation constant 50 <1 mM). CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, these studies demonstrate that donor MHC tetramers, under stringent binding conditions with decoy self-MHC tetramers, can specifically identify a broad repertoire of donor-specific B cells under conditions of rejection and tolerance.

Intragraft B cell differentiation during the development of tolerance to kidney allografts is associated with a regulatory B cell signature revealed by single cell transcriptomics.

Mouse kidney allografts are spontaneously accepted in select, fully mismatched donor-recipient strain combinations, like DBA/2J to C57BL/6 (B6), by natural tolerance. We previously showed accepted renal grafts form aggregates containing various immune cells within 2 weeks posttransplant, referred to as regulatory T cell-rich organized lymphoid structures, which are a novel regulatory tertiary lymphoid organ. To characterize the cells within T cell-rich organized lymphoid structures, we performed single-cell RNA sequencing on CD45+ sorted cells from accepted and rejected renal grafts from 1-week to 6-months posttransplant. Analysis of single-cell RNA sequencing data revealed a shifting from a T cell-dominant to a B cell-rich population by 6 months with an increased regulatory B cell signature. Furthermore, B cells were a greater proportion of the early infiltrating cells in accepted vs rejecting grafts. Flow cytometry of B cells at 20 weeks posttransplant revealed T cell, immunoglobulin domain and mucin domain-1+ B cells, potentially implicating a regulatory role in the maintenance of allograft tolerance. Lastly, B cell trajectory analysis revealed intragraft differentiation from precursor B cells to memory B cells in accepted allografts. In summary, we show a shifting T cell- to B cell-rich environment and a differential cellular pattern among accepted vs rejecting kidney allografts, possibly implicating B cells in the maintenance of kidney allograft acceptance.

Transcriptionally Distinct B Cells Infiltrate Allografts After Kidney Transplantation.

BACKGROUND: Following allogeneic kidney transplantation, a substantial proportion of graft loss is attributed to the formation of donor-specific antibodies and antibody-mediated rejection. B cells infiltrate kidney grafts during antibody-mediated rejection; however, the origins, repertoires, and functions of these intrarenal B cells remain elusive. METHODS: Here, we use murine allogeneic kidney transplant models to study the origins, transcriptional programming and B cell receptor repertoire of intragraft B cells, and in vitro stimulation assays to evaluate the ability of intragraft B cells to promote CD4+ T cell expansion. RESULTS: B cells infiltrate kidney grafts in settings of allogeneic, but not syngeneic, transplantation. Intragraft B cells have characteristics of activation but are transcriptionally distinct from germinal center B cells and resemble innate-like B cells. B cell receptor sequencing demonstrates that the majority of intragraft B cells do not originate from lymph node germinal center B cells and are largely germline. Class-switched intragraft B cells are rare but can be donor-specific and produce IgG capable of binding to the kidney allograft. Lastly, intrarenal B cells are capable of stimulating naive T cells but have an altered ability to promote T follicular helper cell expansion. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these data demonstrate that intrarenal B cells during transplant rejection are transcriptionally distinct from lymph node B cells.

Delivery of costimulatory blockade to lymph nodes promotes transplant acceptance in mice.

The lymph node (LN) is the primary site of alloimmunity activation and regulation during transplantation. Here, we investigated how fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs) facilitate the tolerance induced by anti-CD40L in a murine model of heart transplantation. We found that both the absence of LNs and FRC depletion abrogated the effect of anti-CD40L in prolonging murine heart allograft survival. Depletion of FRCs impaired homing of T cells across the high endothelial venules (HEVs) and promoted formation of alloreactive T cells in the LNs in heart-transplanted mice treated with anti-CD40L. Single-cell RNA sequencing of the LNs showed that anti-CD40L promotes a Madcam1+ FRC subset. FRCs also promoted the formation of regulatory T cells (Tregs) in vitro. Nanoparticles (NPs) containing anti-CD40L were selectively delivered to the LNs by coating them with MECA-79, which binds to peripheral node addressin (PNAd) glycoproteins expressed exclusively by HEVs. Treatment with these MECA-79-anti-CD40L-NPs markedly delayed the onset of heart allograft rejection and increased the presence of Tregs. Finally, combined MECA-79-anti-CD40L-NPs and rapamycin treatment resulted in markedly longer allograft survival than soluble anti-CD40L and rapamycin. These data demonstrate that FRCs are critical to facilitating costimulatory blockade. LN-targeted nanodelivery of anti-CD40L could effectively promote heart allograft acceptance.

Role of T follicular helper and T follicular regulatory cells in antibody-mediated rejection: new therapeutic targets?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Antibody-mediated rejection (AbMR) after solid organ transplantation is tightly controlled by multiple cells of the immune system. Tfh and Tfr cells are essential controllers of antibody responses making them putative targets for therapeutics. However, the mechanisms of how Tfh and Tfr cells regulate B cell and antibody responses are not completely understood. Here, we summarize recent studies elucidating the functions of T follicular helper (Tfh) and T follicular regulatory (Tfr) cells as well as their possible roles in regulating AbMR in solid organ transplantation. RECENT FINDINGS: New tools have been developed to study the roles of Tfh and Tfr cells in specific disease states, including AbMR after solid organ transplantation. These tools suggest complex roles for Tfh and Tfr cells in controlling antibody responses. Nevertheless, studies in solid organ transplant rejection suggest that Tfh and Tfr cells may be high value targets for therapeutics. However, specific strategies to target these cells are still being investigated. SUMMARY: AbMR is still a substantial clinical problem that restricts long-term survival after solid organ transplantation. Growing evidence has demonstrated a pivotal role for Tfh and Tfr cells in controlling AbMR. In addition to providing an early indication of rejection as a biomarker, targeting Tfh and Tfr cells as a therapeutic strategy offers new hope for alleviating AbMR.

Characterization of CD41+ cells in the lymph node.

Lymph nodes (LNs) are the critical sites of immunity, and the stromal cells of LNs are crucial to their function. Our understanding of the stromal compartment of the LN has deepened recently with the characterization of nontraditional stromal cells. CD41 (integrin αIIb) is known to be expressed by platelets and hematolymphoid cells. We identified two distinct populations of CD41+Lyve1+ and CD41+Lyve1- cells in the LNs. CD41+Lyve1- cells appear in the LN mostly at the later stages of the lives of mice. We identified CD41+ cells in human LNs as well. We demonstrated that murine CD41+ cells express mesodermal markers, such as Sca-1, CD105 and CD29, but lack platelet markers. We did not observe the presence of platelets around the HEVs or within proximity to fibroblastic reticular cells of the LN. Examination of thoracic duct lymph fluid showed the presence of CD41+Lyve1- cells, suggesting that these cells recirculate throughout the body. FTY720 reduced their trafficking to lymph fluid, suggesting that their egress is controlled by the S1P1 pathway. CD41+Lyve1- cells of the LNs were sensitive to radiation, suggestive of their replicative nature. Single cell RNA sequencing data showed that the CD41+ cell population in naïve mouse LNs expressed largely stromal cell markers. Further studies are required to examine more deeply the role of CD41+ cells in the function of LNs.

T cell depletion increases humoral response by favoring T follicular helper cells expansion.

Antibody-mediated rejection is a major cause of long-term graft loss in kidney transplant patients. T follicular helper (Tfh) cells are crucial for assisting B cell differentiation and are required for an efficient antibody response. Anti-thymocyte globulin (ATG) is a widely used lymphocyte-depleting induction therapy. However, less is known about how ATG affects Tfh cell development and donor-specific antibody (DSA) formation. We observed an increase in circulating Tfh cells at 6 months after kidney transplant in patients who received ATG. Using an NP-OVA immunization model, we found that ATG-treated mice had a higher percentage of Tfh cells, germinal center B cells, and higher titers of antigen-specific antibodies compared to controls. ATG-treated animals had lower levels of IL-2, a known Bcl-6 repressor, but higher levels of IL-21, pSTAT3 and Bcl-6, favoring Tfh differentiation. In a mouse kidney transplant model, ATG-treated recipients showed an increase in Tfh cells, DSA and C4d staining in the allograft. Although ATG was effective in depleting T cells, it favored the expansion of Tfh cells following depletion. Concomitant use of IL-2, tacrolimus, or rapamycin with ATG was essential to control Tfh cell expansion. In summary, ATG depletion favors Tfh expansion, enhancing antibody-mediated response.

BET-bromodomain and EZH2 inhibitor-treated chronic GVHD mice have blunted germinal centers with distinct transcriptomes.

Despite advances in the field, chronic graft-versus-host-disease (cGVHD) remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality following allogenic hematopoietic stem cell transplant. Because treatment options remain limited, we tested efficacy of anticancer, chromatin-modifying enzyme inhibitors in a clinically relevant murine model of cGVHD with bronchiolitis obliterans (BO). We observed that the novel enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) inhibitor JQ5 and the BET-bromodomain inhibitor JQ1 each improved pulmonary function; impaired the germinal center (GC) reaction, a prerequisite in cGVHD/BO pathogenesis; and JQ5 reduced EZH2-mediated H3K27me3 in donor T cells. Using conditional EZH2 knockout donor cells, we demonstrated that EZH2 is obligatory for the initiation of cGVHD/BO. In a sclerodermatous cGVHD model, JQ5 reduced the severity of cutaneous lesions. To determine how the 2 drugs could lead to the same physiological improvements while targeting unique epigenetic processes, we analyzed the transcriptomes of splenic GCB cells (GCBs) from transplanted mice treated with either drug. Multiple inflammatory and signaling pathways enriched in cGVHD/BO GCBs were reduced by each drug. GCBs from JQ5- but not JQ1-treated mice were enriched for proproliferative pathways also seen in GCBs from bone marrow-only transplanted mice, likely reflecting their underlying biology in the unperturbed state. In conjunction with in vivo data, these insights led us to conclude that epigenetic targeting of the GC is a viable clinical approach for the treatment of cGVHD, and that the EZH2 inhibitor JQ5 and the BET-bromodomain inhibitor JQ1 demonstrated clinical potential for EZH2i and BETi in patients with cGVHD/BO.

Follicular T cells optimize the germinal center response to SARS-CoV-2 protein vaccination in mice.

Follicular helper T (Tfh) cells promote, whereas follicular regulatory T (Tfr) cells restrain, germinal center (GC) reactions. However, the precise roles of these cells in the complex GC reaction remain poorly understood. Here, we perturb Tfh or Tfr cells after SARS-CoV-2 spike protein vaccination in mice. We find that Tfh cells promote the frequency and somatic hypermutation (SHM) of Spike-specific GC B cells and regulate clonal diversity. Tfr cells similarly control SHM and clonal diversity in the GC but do so by limiting clonal competition. In addition, deletion of Tfh or Tfr cells during primary vaccination results in changes in SHM after vaccine boosting. Aged mice, which have altered Tfh and Tfr cells, have lower GC responses, presenting a bimodal distribution of SHM. Together, these data demonstrate that GC responses to SARS-CoV-2 spike protein vaccines require a fine balance of positive and negative follicular T cell help to optimize humoral immunity.

An aluminum hydroxide:CpG adjuvant enhances protection elicited by a SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain vaccine in aged mice.

Global deployment of vaccines that can provide protection across several age groups is still urgently needed to end the COVID-19 pandemic, especially in low- and middle-income countries. Although vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 based on mRNA and adenoviral vector technologies have been rapidly developed, additional practical and scalable SARS-CoV-2 vaccines are required to meet global demand. Protein subunit vaccines formulated with appropriate adjuvants represent an approach to address this urgent need. The receptor binding domain (RBD) is a key target of SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies but is poorly immunogenic. We therefore compared pattern recognition receptor (PRR) agonists alone or formulated with aluminum hydroxide (AH) and benchmarked them against AS01B and AS03-like emulsion-based adjuvants for their potential to enhance RBD immunogenicity in young and aged mice. We found that an AH and CpG adjuvant formulation (AH:CpG) produced an 80-fold increase in anti-RBD neutralizing antibody titers in both age groups relative to AH alone and protected aged mice from the SARS-CoV-2 challenge. The AH:CpG-adjuvanted RBD vaccine elicited neutralizing antibodies against both wild-type SARS-CoV-2 and the B.1.351 (beta) variant at serum concentrations comparable to those induced by the licensed Pfizer-BioNTech BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine. AH:CpG induced similar cytokine and chemokine gene enrichment patterns in the draining lymph nodes of both young adult and aged mice and enhanced cytokine and chemokine production in human mononuclear cells of younger and older adults. These data support further development of AH:CpG-adjuvanted RBD as an affordable vaccine that may be effective across multiple age groups.

Tfh-Mediated and Tfr-Suppressed Antigen-Driven IgG and IgE Assays.

T Follicular helper (Tfh) cells stimulate, whereas T follicular regulatory (Tfr) cells inhibit, effector B cell responses. Although new tools have been developed to assess the functional roles of Tfh and Tfr cells in vivo, methods to assess mechanisms have been limited. One such limitation has been the ability of in vitro functional assays to recapitulate robust germinal center-like responses. Although previous in vitro Tfh-mediated and Tfr-suppressed assays to assess antibody regulation have been developed, these classically have relied on polyclonal stimulation. To understand Tfh and Tfr cell functionality, more robust assays that utilize specific antigen are needed. Here we describe an in vitro approach for sensitively and quantitatively assessing the capacity of Tfh and Tfr cells to regulate B cell responses in an antigen-driven system. These assays allow the study of Tfh and Tfr cells in specific disease contexts, such as IgG production after vaccination or IgE responses during allergic airway disease.

Disordered T cell-B cell interactions in autoantibody-positive inflammatory arthritis.

T peripheral helper (Tph) cells, identified in the synovium of adults with seropositive rheumatoid arthritis, drive B cell maturation and antibody production in non-lymphoid tissues. We sought to determine if similarly dysregulated T cell-B cell interactions underlie another form of inflammatory arthritis, juvenile oligoarthritis (oligo JIA). Clonally expanded Tph cells able to promote B cell antibody production preferentially accumulated in the synovial fluid (SF) of oligo JIA patients with antinuclear antibodies (ANA) compared to autoantibody-negative patients. Single-cell transcriptomics enabled further definition of the Tph gene signature in inflamed tissues and showed that Tph cells from ANA-positive patients upregulated genes associated with B cell help to a greater extent than patients without autoantibodies. T cells that co-expressed regulatory T and B cell-help factors were identified. The phenotype of these Tph-like Treg cells suggests an ability to restrain T cell-B cell interactions in tissues. Our findings support the central role of disordered T cell-help to B cells in autoantibody-positive arthritides.

Overexpression of PD-1 on T cells promotes tolerance in cardiac transplantation via ICOS-dependent mechanisms.

The programmed death 1/programmed death ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) pathway is a potent inhibitory pathway involved in immune regulation and is a potential therapeutic target in transplantation. In this study, we show that overexpression of PD-1 on T cells (PD-1 Tg) promotes allograft tolerance in a fully MHC-mismatched cardiac transplant model when combined with costimulation blockade with CTLA-4-Ig. PD-1 overexpression on T cells also protected against chronic rejection in a single MHC II-mismatched cardiac transplant model, whereas the overexpression still allowed the generation of an effective immune response against an influenza A virus. Notably, Tregs from PD-1 Tg mice were required for tolerance induction and presented greater ICOS expression than those from WT mice. The survival benefit of PD-1 Tg recipients required ICOS signaling and donor PD-L1 expression. These results indicate that modulation of PD-1 expression, in combination with a costimulation blockade, is a promising therapeutic target to promote transplant tolerance.

Recent Metabolic Advances for Preventing and Treating Acute and Chronic Graft Versus Host Disease.

The therapeutic efficacy of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) is limited by the development of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). In GVHD, rigorous pre-conditioning regimen resets the immune landscape and inflammatory milieu causing immune dysregulation, characterized by an expansion of alloreactive cells and a reduction in immune regulatory cells. In acute GVHD (aGVHD), the release of damage- and pathogen- associated molecular patterns from damaged tissue caused by the conditioning regimen sets the stage for T cell priming, activation and expansion further exacerbating tissue injury and organ damage, particularly in the gastrointestinal tract. Studies have shown that donor T cells utilize multiple energetic and biosynthetic pathways to mediate GVHD that can be distinct from the pathways used by regulatory T cells for their suppressive function. In chronic GVHD (cGVHD), donor T cells may differentiate into IL-21 producing T follicular helper cells or tissue resident T helper cells that cooperate with germinal center B cells or memory B cells, respectively, to produce allo- and auto-reactive antibodies with subsequent tissue fibrosis. Alternatively, donor T cells can become IFN- γ/IL-17 cytokine expressing T cells that mediate sclerodermatous skin injury. Patients refractory to the first line standard regimens for GVHD treatment have a poor prognosis indicating an urgent need for new therapies to restore the balance between effector and regulatory immune cells while preserving the beneficial graft-versus-tumor effect. Emerging data points toward a role for metabolism in regulating these allo- and auto-immune responses. Here, we will discuss the preclinical and clinical data available on the distinct metabolic demands of acute and chronic GVHD and recent efforts in identifying therapeutic targets using metabolomics. Another dimension of this review will examine the changing microbiome after allo-HSCT and the role of microbial metabolites such as short chain fatty acids and long chain fatty acids on regulating immune responses. Lastly, we will examine the metabolic implications of coinhibitory pathway blockade and cellular therapies in allo-HSCT. In conclusion, greater understanding of metabolic pathways involved in immune cell dysregulation during allo-HSCT may pave the way to provide novel therapies to prevent and treat GVHD.

Erythropoietin Reduces Auto- and Alloantibodies by Inhibiting T Follicular Helper Cell Differentiation.

BACKGROUND: Although high-affinity IgG auto- and alloantibodies are important drivers of kidney inflammation that can result in ESKD, therapeutic approaches that effectively reduce such pathogenic antibodies remain elusive. Erythropoietin (EPO) has immunomodulatory functions, but its effects on antibody production are unknown. METHODS: We assessed the effect and underlying mechanisms of EPO/EPO receptor (EPOR) signaling on primary and secondary, T cell-dependent and T-independent antibody formation using in vitro culture systems, murine models of organ transplantation and lupus nephritis, and mice conditionally deficient for the EPOR expressed on T cells or B cells. RESULTS: In wild-type mice, recombinant EPO inhibited primary, T cell-dependent humoral immunity to model antigens and strong, polyclonal stimuli, but did not alter T-independent humoral immune responses. EPO also significantly impaired secondary humoral immunity in a potent allogeneic organ transplant model system. The effects required T cell, but not B cell, expression of the EPOR and resulted in diminished frequencies of germinal center (GC) B cells and T follicular helper cells (TFH). In vitro and in vivo experiments showed that EPO directly prevented TFH differentiation and function via a STAT5-dependent mechanism that reduces CD4+ T cell expression of Bcl6. In lupus models, EPO reduced TFH, GC B cells, and autoantibody production, and abrogated autoimmune glomerulonephritis, demonstrating clinical relevance. In vitro studies verified that EPO prevents differentiation of human TFH cells. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings newly demonstrate that EPO inhibits TFH-dependent antibody formation, an observation with potential implications for treating antibody-mediated diseases, including those of the kidney.