Getting it right takes time: response time and performance in secondary school students.

The relation between response time and performance in cognitive tasks is increasingly evident. In the present study, we analyzed the effect of participants' spontaneous speed when responding to a mental rotation task. We carried out a data reanalysis from a previous study where a training of 3 practice sessions of 100 trials each was applied. The procedure was applied to a sample of 21 high school students (11 boys, 10 girls). The relation between response time and performance (hits) across the training trials was analyzed. In addition, we carried out a regression analysis of performance on the learning task as a function of response time on that same task, as well as with the score on two previously applied tests of spatial intelligence and fluid intelligence. Results showed, (a) a significant relationship (r = 0.624) between response time and hits, (b) that the group of participants with longer response times performed better; (c) that participants' response time explained most of the variance of their score on the training task in the regression analysis, although spatial and fluid intelligence scores improved the prediction of performance. Our results suggest that the reflective style achieves greater performance in solving spatial tasks, which could have important practical implications to promote a slower and more reflective style when solving school tasks with spatial components.

Goal Orientation Test: An Objective Behavioral Test.

The aim of the present research is to assess goal orientation (mastery and performance) by developing an objective behavioral test. We elaborated the Mastery Performance-Goal Orientation Test, a task that allows assessment of goal orientation along a single dimension. We studied its reliability and validity by conducting two studies. In Study 1 (N = 293 adults), the distribution of scores along the goal orientation variable showed wide variability and high internal consistency. The mastery-oriented participants demonstrated higher levels of category learning, whereas the performance-oriented participants responded in a less discriminative way but achieved higher scores. In Study 2 (N = 41 undergraduate students), the mastery-oriented participants achieved higher scores on a learning task than the performance-oriented subjects. The results also showed that the test had the potential to predict subsequent learning. We conclude that it might be a useful instrument to assess goal orientation.

Test-retest reliability and convergent validity of attention measures.

Recently, numerous pretest-posttest study designs have evaluated attention impairments and effectiveness of attention training. However, some of the attention tasks used in these studies show a lack of temporal stability analysis that reduces confidence in attention training outcomes. We aim to analyze the temporal stability within three attention tasks using different measures of attention (speed measures, accuracy measures, and global attention indexes) and the convergent validity between the measures. A total of 178 university students completed three attention tasks with a time interval of one week. Speed measures of attention showed higher test-retest reliability and higher convergence than accuracy measures. Accuracy measures showed nonnormal distributions and small range of variability to provide sufficient discrimination. Speed measures showed high practice effects. These results are consistent with previous studies of temporal stability and convergent validity of attention tasks. However, further studies of commonly used attention tasks are necessary in healthy and clinical samples. Additionally, attention training studies should include a control group to subtract the practice effect of speed measures.

Are we more consistent when talking about ourselves than when behaving? Consistency differences through a questionnaire and an objective task.

The present paper aimed to examine questionnaire response patterns and objective task-based test behavioral patterns in order to analyze the differences people show in consistency. It is hypothesized that people tend to be more consistent when talking about themselves (when describing themselves through verbal statements) that when they solve a task (when behaving). Consistency is computed using the pi* statistic (Hernandez, Rubio, Revuelta, & Santacreu, 2006). According to this procedure, consistency is defined as the value and the dimensionality of the latent trait of an individual (theta) remaining invariant through out the test of. Participants who are consistent must show a constant theta and follow a given response pattern during the entire course of the test. A sample of 3,972 participants was used. Results reveal that 68% of participants showed a consistent response pattern when completing the questionnaire. When tackling the task-based test, the percentage was 66%. 45% of individuals showed a consistent pattern in both tests. Implications for personality and individual differences assessment are discussed.

Are we more consistent when talking about ourselves than when behaving? Consistency differences through a questionnaire and an objective task

The present paper aimed to examine questionnaire response patterns and objective task-based test behavioral patterns in order to analyze the differences people show in consistency. It is hypothesized that people tend to be more consistent when talking about themselves (when describing themselves through verbal statements) that when they solve a task (when behaving). Consistency is computed using the Pi* statistic (Hernandez, Rubio, Revuelta, & Santacreu, 2006). According to this procedure, consistency is defined as the value and the dimensionality of the latent trait of an individual (theta) remaining invariant through out the test of. Participants who are consistent must show a constant theta and follow a given response pattern during the entire course of the test. A sample of 3,972 participants was used. Results reveal that 68% of participants showed a consistent response pattern when completing the questionnaire. When tackling the task-based test, the percentage was 66%. 45% of individuals showed a consistent pattern in both tests. Implications for personality and individual differences assessment are discussed (AU)

El presente artículo pretende examinar las diferencias que muestran las personas en cuanto a su consistencia entre los patrones de respuesta a un cuestionario y los patrones de respuesta ante un test objetivo basado en tareas. Se hipotetiza que las personas tienden a ser más consistentes cuando hablan sobre ellos mismos (es decir, cuando se describen en base a declaraciones verbales, como es el caso de los cuestionarios) que cuando resuelven una tarea (cuando se comportan). La consistencia se calcula utilizando el estadístico Pi* (Hernandez, Rubio, Revuelta, & Santacreu, 2006). De acuerdo con este procedimiento, la consistencia se define como la invarianza del valor y la dimensionalidad del rasgo latente de un individuo (theta) a lo largo de un test. Los participantes que son consistentes mostrarán una theta constante y seguirán un patrón de respuesta dado a lo largo del curso completo del test. Para este estudio se utilizó una muestra de 3972 personas. Los resultados muestran que el 68% de los participantes mostraron un patrón de respuesta consistente cuando cumplimentaron el cuestionario. Sin embargo, cuando se enfrentaron al test objetivo basado en tareas, el porcentaje fue del 66%. El 45% de los participantes mostraron un patrón consistente en los dos tests. El artículo analiza las implicaciones para la evaluación de la personalidad y las diferencias individuales (AU)

¿Mejora el rendimiento espacial por efecto de la práctica? / Does spatial performance improve by practice effects?

¿Pueden aprenderse las aptitudes? Aunque existe cierto consenso para aceptar que pueden producirse algunas ganancias, hay poco acuerdo sobre cómo se consiguen tales mejoras en las aptitudes (Lohman y Nichols, 1990). Una forma de aproximarse al problema en la capacidad espacial, ha sido mediante el análisis del efecto de la práctica y el feedback. El objetivo del presente trabajo consistió en analizar el efecto de la práctica y de la información sobre el rastro dejado por un estímulo móvil (feedback) en la capacidad para orientar objetos en movimiento. En un primer experimento, 42 sujetos completaron dos tareas dinámicas (SODT-R y SDT 2.0), consistentes en dirigir la trayectoria de dos objetos móviles para que lleguen sin desviación a un punto de destino, con tres niveles de rastro y 9 ó 18 ensayos. En un segundo experimento, 52 sujetos completaron el SDT 2.0, con tres niveles de rastro y 12, 24 ó 36 ensayos. Los resultados mostraron que cuanto mayor es la práctica y mayor es la información sobre la trayectoria de los móviles, mejor es el rendimiento. Se discuten las implicaciones de estos resultados en el marco de la teoría basada en los procesos y el aprendizaje de las capacidades humanas(AU)

Can the abilities be learning? Although there is some consensus that abilities are developed, there is little consensus on how this development might occur (Lohman & Nichols, 1990). One approach in spatial ability has been the study of feedback and practice effects. The aim of the present study was to analyse these effects on dynamic spatial ability. 42 subjects completed two dynamic tasks (SODT-R and SDT 2.0) during the first experiment. Both tasks consisted of to guide two moving dots toward a destination, manipulating three levels of traces (feedback) and the number of trials (practice; 9 vs.18). In the second experiment, 52 subjects did the same task with SDT 2.0 procedure, also manipulating three levels of traces and the number of trials (12 vs. 24 vs. 36). Data showed level of traces and practice influenced dynamic spatial ability. Subject’s performance was better when more feedback traces were given and when more trials were done. We discuss theoretical implications based on the human learning and capacity processes(AU)

Performance as a function of ability, resources invested, and strategy used.

Computerized tasks allow a more fine-grained analysis of the strategy deployed in a task designed to map a specific ability than the usual assessment on the basis of only the level of performance. Manipulations expected to impair performance sometimes do not have that effect, probably because the level of performance alone can confound the assessment of the ability level if researchers ignore the strategy used. In a study with 1,872 participants, the authors applied the Spatial Orientation Dynamic Test-Revised (J. Santacreu, 1999) in single and dual task settings, identifying 3 different strategies. Strategy shifts were associated with the level of performance, as more apt individuals were more likely to shift to better strategies. Ignoring the strategies yields counterintuitive results that cannot be explained by simple, direct relations among the constructs involved.

Solution strategies as possible explanations of individual and sex differences in a dynamic spatial task.

When individuals perform spatial tasks, individual differences emerge in accuracy and speed as well as in the response patterns used to cope with the task. The purpose of this study is to identify, through empirical criteria, the different response patterns or strategies used by individuals when performing the dynamic spatial task presented in the Spatial Orientation Dynamic Test-Revised (SODT-R). Results show that participants can be classified according to their response patterns. Three different ways of solving a task are described, and their relation to (a) performance factors (response latency, response frequency, and invested time) and (b) ability tests (analytical reasoning, verbal reasoning, and spatial estimation) are investigated. Sex differences in response patterns and performance are also analyzed. It is found that the frequency with which men and women employ each one of the strategies described here, is different and statistically significant. Thus, employed strategy plays an important role when interpreting sex differences on dynamic spatial tasks.

Influence of impulsivity-reflexivity when testing dynamic spatial ability: sex and g differences.

This work analyzes the possibility that the differences in the performance of men and women in dynamic spatial tasks such as the Spatial Orientation Dynamic Test-Revised (SODT-R; Santacreu & Rubio, 1998), obtained in previous works, are due to cognitive style (Reflexivity-Impulsivity) or to the speed-accuracy tradeoff (SATO) that the participants implement. If these differences are due to cognitive style, they would be independent of intelligence, whereas if they are due to SATO, they may be associated with intelligence. In this work, 1652 participants, 984 men and 668 women, ages between 18 and 55 years, were assessed. In addition to the SODT-R, the "Test de Razonamiento Analitico, Secuencial e Inductivo" (TRASI [Analytical, Sequential, and Inductive Reasoning Test]; Rubio & Santacreu, 2003) was administered as a measure of general intelligence. Impulsivity scores (Zi) of Salkind and Wright (1977) were used to analyze reflexivity-impulsivity and SATO. The results obtained indicate that (a) four performance groups can be identified: Fast-accurate, Slow-inaccurate, Impulsive, and Reflexive. The first two groups solve the task as a function of a competence variable and the last two as a function of a personality variable; (b) performance differences should be attributed to SATO; (c) SATO differs depending on sex and intelligence level.

Influence of impulsivity-reflexivity when testing dynamic spatial ability: sex and g differences

This work analyzes the possibility that the differences in the performance of men and women in dynamic spatial tasks such as the Spatial Orientation Dynamic Test-Revised (SODT-R; Santacreu & Rubio, 1998), obtained in previous works, are due to cognitive style (Reflexivity-Impulsivity)or to the speed-accuracy trade off (SATO) that the participants implement. If these differences are due to cognitive style, they would be independent of intelligence, whereas if they are due to SATO, they may be associated with intelligence. In this work, 1652 participants, 984 men and 668 women, ages between 18 and 55 years, were assessed. In addition to the SODT-R, the «Test de Razonamiento Analítico, Secuencial e Inductivo» (TRASI [Analytical, Sequential, and Inductive Reasoning Test]; Rubio & Santacreu, 2003) was administered as a measure of general intelligence. Impulsivity scores(Zi) of Salkind and Wright (1977) were used to analyze reflexivity-impulsivity and SATO. The results obtained indicate that (a) four performance groups can be identified: Fast-accurate, Slowinaccurate, Impulsive, and Reflexive. The first two groups solve the task as a function of a competence variable and the last two as a function of a personality variable; (b) performance differences should be attributed to SATO; (c) SATO differs depending on sex and intelligence level (AU)

El trabajo analiza la posibilidad de que las diferencias en la ejecución de varones y mujeres en tareas espaciales dinámicas como el Spatial Orientation Dynamic Test-Revised (SODT-R Santacreu y Rubio, 1998), obtenidas en trabajos previos, se deban al estilo cognitivo (Reflexividad-Impulsividad) o al balance velocidad-exactitud; (Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off, SATO) que los participantes pongan en marcha. De deberse al estilo cognitivo serían independientes de la inteligencia mientras que si se deben al balance Velocidad-Exactitud pueden estar asociadas a la inteligencia. Se evaluó a 1652 participantes, 984 varones y 668 mujeres, de edades comprendidas entre 18 y 55 años.Además del SODT-R se administró el Test de Razonamiento Analítico, Secuencial e Inductivo (TRASI; Rubio y Santacreu, 2003) como medida de inteligencia general. Para el análisis de la Reflexividad-Impulsividad (R-I) y el balance velocidad-exactitud se utilizaron las puntuaciones de impulsividad (Zi) de Salkind y Wright (1977). Los resultados obtenidos indican que: a/ se pueden identificar cuatro grupos de ejecución: Rápidos-exactos, Lentos inexactos, Impulsivos y Reflexivos.Los dos primeros resuelven la tarea en función de una variable competencial y los dos últimos en función de una variable de personalidad; b/ las diferencias en la ejecución deben atribuirse al balance VE; c/ este balance es diferente según el sexo y el nivel de inteligencia (AU)

Sex differences in dynamic spatial ability: the unsolved question of performance factors.

Males and females differ in several cognitive abilities, although the largest gap can be found in spatial ability. Some published studies make the claim that performance factors, which can be either subject- or task-related variables, explain these differences. However, previous studies in which performance factors were measured have focused on static spatial tests. Little is known about the role of performance factors in dynamic spatial tasks. In the present study, we analyzed a sample of 2624 university graduates to test the role of three performance factors (response latency, response frequency, and invested time) derived from the Spatial Orientation Dynamic Test-Revised (SODT-R; Santacreu, 1999). The results showed that males and females appear to cope with the dynamic task in different ways. However, males outperformed females even when the effects of the performance factors were partialed out; that is, the assessed performance factors did not explain much of the sex-related variance. Alternative ways of measuring performance factors will be needed if they are to explain sex differences in dynamic spatial ability.

Fluid intelligence, working memory and executive functioning / Inteligencia fluida, memoria de trabajo y funcionamiento ejecutivo

The causes underlying the correlation between working memory and fluid intelligence remain unknown. There are some researchers who argue that the answer can be found on the presumed executive component of working memory. However, the available empirical evidence is far from conclusive. The present study tested a sample of 229 participants. Intelligence, working memory, and executive functioning were measured by one analytic reasoning test (TRASI), a dual task combining a primary task of deductive reasoning with a secondary task of counting, and the Tower of Hanoi task, respectively. All the 3 measures were computer administered. The results indicate that the shared variance between executive functioning and working memory do not account for the relationship between intelligence and working memory. Some theoretical implications are discussed

Actualmente siguen siendo desconocidas las causas que subyacen a la correlación de la memoria de trabajo con la inteligencia fluida. Algunos investigadores proponen que una respuesta posible radica en el supuesto componente ejecutivo de la memoria de trabajo. Sin embargo, la evidencia empírica disponible no es concluyente. El presente estudio considera una muestra de 229 participantes. La inteligencia, la memoria de trabajo y el funcionamiento ejecutivo se midieron con un test de razonamiento analítico (TRASI), una tarea dual que combinaba una tarea primaria de razonamiento deductivo con una tarea secundaria de recuento, y la Torre de Hanoi, respectivamente. Las tres medidas se diseñaron para su aplicación informática. Los resultados indican que la varianza común al funcionamiento ejecutivo y la memoria de trabajo no explica la relación entre inteligencia y memoria de trabajo. Se discuten algunas implicaciones teóricas

Simulation of habituation to simple and multiple stimuli.

Within the psychological literature there are a number of models that reproduce the defining properties of habituation to a single stimulus. However, most of them do not reproduce the phenomenon of dishabituation shown in empirical studies, consisting in the recovery of a stimulus previously habituated upon the appearance of a novel stimulus. The present work offers a model of habituation which, in addition to reproducing the basic properties of habituation to a stimulus, also does so when more than one stimulus is presented, and thus includes the dishabituation phenomenon. This model consists of two functions, one called "activation" and the other "availability", and is tested by means of simulation of the responses in the context of different stimulus patterns. The results of the simulation show a good qualitative fit to the empirical results on the phenomena of habituation, including dishabituation. In addition, the model is suitable for inclusion in associative models that reproduce classical conditioning, which will make it possible in the future to incorporate into these in a simple way the influence that the habituation of each stimulus may have on its association with other stimuli.

Fluid intelligence, working memory and executive functioning.

The causes underlying the correlation between working memory and fluid intelligence remain unknown. There are some researchers who argue that the answer can be found on the presumed executive component of working memory. However, the available empirical evidence is far from conclusive. The present study tested a sample of 229 participants. Intelligence, working memory, and executive functioning were measured by one analytic reasoning test (TRASI), a dual task combining a primary task of deductive reasoning with a secondary task of counting, and the Tower of Hanoi task, respectively. All the 3 measures were computer administered. The results indicate that the shared variance between executive functioning and working memory do not account for the relationship between intelligence and working memory. Some theoretical implications are discussed.

Simulation of the filtering role of habituation to stimuli.

In the context of a medium-term study designed to integrate the simulation of different types and processes of learning-such as classical, operant, and some cognitive types--one must start with other more elementary ones that are facilitators of the more complex types and processes. Of special interest is habituation, owing to the filtering out of irrelevant stimuli, which means that the simulated agent does not have to respond to them. This paper presents two difference functions constructed to computationally simulate the characteristics that define habituation. The behavior of these functions is described, as are differences arising from stimulus intensity and interstimulus intervals. Results are compared with existing empirical data.

Simulation of the filtering role of habituation to stimuli

In the context of a medium-term study designed to integrate the simulation of different types and processes of learning -such as classical, operant, and some cognitive types- one must start with other more elementary ones that are facilitators of the more complex types and processes. Of special interest is habituation, owing to the filtering out of irrelevant stimuli, which means that the simulated agent does not have to respond to them. This paper presents two difference functions constructed to computationally simulate the characteristics that define habituation. The behavior of these functions is described, asare differences arising from stimulus intensity and interstimulus intervals. Results are compared with existing empirical data (AU)

En el contexto de un proyecto a medio plazo que pretende integrar la simulación de diferentes tipos y procesos de aprendizaje -como el clásico, operante y algunos de tipo cognoscitivo- es fundamental comenzar por otros más elementales facilitadores de los más complejos. Interesa especialmente la habituación debido al filtraje que realiza delos estímulos irrelevantes, evitando al agente simulado responder a ellos. El presente trabajo presenta dos funciones en diferencias construidas para simular computacionalmente las características definitorias de la habituación. Se describe el comportamiento de tales funciones y sus variaciones según la intensidad de los estímulos presentados y el intervalo entre ellos, evaluándose su ajuste a datos empíricos existentes (AU)

La persistencia en el estudio conductual de la personalidad / Persistence in the behavioral study of personality

Desde una aproximación conductual, la persistencia se puede estimar a partir del mantenimiento de la tasa de respuesta en una tarea de adquisición / extinción, bajo un programa de reforzamiento negativo. Se plantea la necesidad de diferenciar entre dos formas de conducta persistente: (a) persistencia aprendida, en la que se mantiene la ejecución de la respuesta adquirida durante la fase de extinción, y (b) persistencia motivacional, en la que se mantiene una tasa de respuesta global constante. Se emplea una tarea diseñada para el estudio de la persistencia, el sistema Pavlov (Santacreu y García-Leal, 2000), para el estudio de las relaciones entre persistencia, motivación inicial y nivel de aprendizaje. Los resultados muestran: (1) la ausencia de relación lineal directa entre motivación inicial y nivel de aprendizaje; (2) la inexistencia de relación significativa entre persistencia motivacional y aprendida, y (3) la medida de la persistencia motivacional permite una mejor discriminación entre los sujetos (AU)

From a behavioral outlook persistence would be operativized by means of the maintenance of the response rate in an acquisition/extinction task, under a negative reinforcement program. It is argued the need of distinguishing two ways of persistence behavior: (a) learned persistence, in which the subject maintains the learned response during extinction phase, and (b) motivation persistence, in which persistence is shown in different responses looking for alternative solutions. Pavlov System, developed for research on persistence (Santacreu y García-Leal, 2000) is used for analyzing the relationships between persistence, initial motivation and learning. Results show: (1) there is no direct lineal relationship between initial motivation and learning in the end of the acquisition phase, (2) learned and motivation persistence are not correlated and (3) distribution of motivational index discriminates better than the learned persistence index among subjects (AU)

Is static spatial performance distinguishable from dynamic spatial performance? A latent-variable analysis.

There is disagreement among researchers about the distinction between dynamic and static spatial performance. Given that dynamic spatial performance is supposed to be important for some occupations, such as air traffic control (ATC), it is germane to have evidence about the likelihood of that distinction. In the present study, a battery of printed static spatial and reasoning tests were applied to 480 applicants for an ATC training course. Two dynamic spatial tests were also applied. Confirmatory factor analyses were performed for testing three models. In Model A, static and dynamic spatial tests were grouped, whereas in Model B, spatial tests were separated according to their static or dynamic character, and in Model C, spatial tests were segregated according to the construct they tapped (visualization or spatial relations). The authors found that Model B, which distinguished static and dynamic spatial tests, showed the best fit. They also discuss some implications of the findings.

Serie de tres términos y modelos de representación / Three -term series and representational models

El razonamiento permite sacar conclusiones a partir de una serie de percepciones, ideas o declaraciones. El razonamiento deductivo produce conclusiones válidas si las premisas son válidas. Algunas deducciones dependen del análisis de relaciones. Por ejemplo, "Ana es mejor que Petra: Julia es peor que Petra: ¿Quién es peor?". Los primeros estudios de laboratorio sugerían que las personas construyen diagramas mentales al razonar sobre este tipo de relaciones (modelo espacial), aunque el análisis lingüístico de las premisas de la serie también parecía poseer un papel relevante (modelo lingüístico ). Posteriormente se propusieron otros dos modelos, el micto y el de niveles, basados en el uso combinado de imágenes mentales y del análisis lingüístico. Según los procesos cognitivos postulados por los modelos señalados se predice el tiempo y la dificultad en la resolución de 32 series de tres términos con solución única, 16 de las cuales incluyen comparativas de superioridad y 16 de igualdad negada. En el presente estudio se calculan los tiempos de resolución y los niveles de dificultad asociados a las estructuras formales de esas 32 series, evaluando a una muestra de 980 personas. Para cada modelo se calcula un análisis de regresión para predecir los tiempos de resolución y los niveles de dificultad observados. Los resultados indican que el modelo espacial es el que mejor predice tanto el tiempo de resolución como el nivel de dificultad de las series. Este hallazgo contradice la investigación previamente publicada. Se discuten algunas implicaciones (AU)

Reasoning yields a conclusión from percepts, ideas, or assertions. Deduction yields valid conclusions if the premises are true. Some deductions depend on reasoning about relations. For example, «Anne is better than Sue: Julia is worse than Sue:: Who is worst?» Early laboratory studies suggested that reasoners construct mental diagrams (spatial model) although linguistic analyses are also involved (linguistic model). Two additional processing models were proposed some years later: the mixed and the levels of representation models. These models are based on a combination of mental images and linguistic processing. The processing time and the difficulty level of 32 three-term series of single solution (16 positive comparative and 16 negative equatives) are predicted from the specific cognitive processes postulated by the models. The present study assesses 980 participants to compute the processing time and the difficulty level of 32 three-term series. A regression analysis is computed to predict processing time and difficulty level. The spatial model is the better predictor of both processing time and difficulty level. This finding is the just opposite of the observed in previous research. Some implications are discussed (AU)

La prevención en el ámbito educativo: el caso de la Escoliosis / Prevention in education setting: the case of scoliosis

La prevención es la mejor forma de lograr el mantenimiento en salud de las personas, reduce los costes del tratamiento y el sufrimiento asociado a la enfermedad de la que hay que recuperarse. La prevención en el ámbito educativo es particularmente importante debido al período del desarrollo que abarca, al tiempo que los estudiantes emplean en esos contextos, a la importancia que tienen de cara a la formación de hábitos de vida y a la presencia en ellos de conductas de riesgo. El presente trabajo pretende, en primer lugar, presentar una nueva conceptualización de las intervenciones preventivas. En segundo lugar, proponer un procedimiento en fases: a) definición del problema, b) análisis de datos epidemiológicos, c) establecimiento de un modelo de génesis del trastorno, d) valoración de intervenciones alternativas, e) diseño de la intervención y, f) evaluación de los resultados. Finalmente, se presenta el caso de un programa de prevención de la escoliosis en el ámbito escolar para ilustrar lo anterior (AU)