ABSTRACT
Cardiac-targeted transgene delivery offers new treatment opportunities for cardiovascular diseases, which massively contribute to global mortality. Restricted gene transfer to cardiac tissue might protect extracardiac organs from potential side-effects. This could be mediated by using cis-regulatory elements, including promoters and enhancers that act on the transcriptional level. Here, we discuss examples of tissue-specific promoters for targeted transcription in myocytes, cardiomyocytes, and chamber-specific cardiomyocytes. Some promotors are induced at pathological states, suggesting a potential use as "induction-by-disease switches" in gene therapy. Recent developments have resulted in the identification of novel enhancer-elements that could further pave the way for future refinement of transcriptional targeting, for example, into the cardiac conduction system.