Manipulations of the olfactory circuit highlight the role of sensory stimulation in regulating sleep amount.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: While wake duration is a major sleep driver, an important question is if wake quality also contributes to controlling sleep. In particular, we sought to determine whether changes in sensory stimulation affect sleep in Drosophila. As Drosophila rely heavily on their sense of smell, we focused on manipulating olfactory input and the olfactory sensory pathway. METHODS: Sensory deprivation was first performed by removing antennae or applying glue to antennae. We then measured sleep in response to neural activation, via expression of the thermally gated cation channel TRPA1, or inhibition, via expression of the inward rectifying potassium channel KIR2.1, of subpopulations of neurons in the olfactory pathway. Genetically restricting manipulations to adult animals prevented developmental effects. RESULTS: We find that olfactory deprivation reduces sleep, largely independently of mushroom bodies that integrate olfactory signals for memory consolidation and have previously been implicated in sleep. However, specific neurons in the lateral horn, the other third-order target of olfactory input, affect sleep. Also, activation of inhibitory second-order projection neurons increases sleep. No single neuronal population in the olfactory processing pathway was found to bidirectionally regulate sleep, and reduced sleep in response to olfactory deprivation may be masked by temperature changes. CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate that Drosophila sleep is sensitive to sensory stimulation, and identify novel sleep-regulating neurons in the olfactory circuit. Scaling of signals across the circuit may explain the lack of bidirectional effects when neuronal activity is manipulated. We propose that olfactory inputs act through specific circuit components to modulate sleep in flies.

Casais para casais: a coterapia como ação interpretativa / Couples for couples: co-therapy as interpretive action / Parejas para parejas: la coterapia como acción interpretativa / Couples pour couples: la cothérapie comme une action interprétative

RESUMO A psicoterapia influencia através de comunicações tanto implícitas quanto explícitas. Ter dois terapeutas apresenta aos casais uma nova relação com a qual os mundos internos dos parceiros podem interagir. Isso oferece uma experiência potencialmente transformadora para a integração de mentes e relacionamentos destruídos. Após uma revisão crítica dos argumentos originalmente oferecidos no Reino Unido para o uso de dois terapeutas em psicoterapia psicanalítica de casais, e incorporando pesquisas que destacam a significância do casal parental para o desenvolvimento da capacidade triangular na primeira infância, os autores - que trabalham como coterapeutas há muitos anos - consideram e ilustram o valor da coterapia como uma forma daquilo que Ogden descreveu como ação interpretativa. A ação interpretativa se relaciona com meios não verbais, pelos quais os terapeutas comunicam o seu entendimento da dinâmica intersubjetiva inconsciente que afeta o processo terapêutico.

ABSTRACT Psychotherapy influences through implicit as well as explicit communications. Having two therapists presents couples with a novel relationship with which the internal worlds of partners can interact. This offers a potentially mutative experience for integrating fractured minds and relationships. Following a critical review of the arguments originally offered in the UK for using two therapists in couple psychoanalytic psychotherapy, and incorporating research that highlights the significance of the parental couple for developing "triangular capacity" in infants, the authors (who have worked as co-therapists for many years) consider and illustrate its value as a form of what Ogden (1994) described as "interpretive action". Interpretive action relates to non-verbal means by which therapists communicate their understanding of unconscious intersubjective dynamics affecting the therapeutic process.

RESUMEN La psicoterapia influye a través de comunicaciones tanto implícitas como explícitas. Tener dos terapeutas ofrece a las parejas una nueva relación con la que sus mundos interiores pueden interactuar. Esto ofrece una experiencia potencialmente transformadora para la interacción de mentes y relaciones en crisis. Tras una revisión crítica de los argumentos originalmente ofrecidos en el Reino Unido para el uso de dos terapeutas en psicoterapia psicoanalítica de parejas, e incorporando investigaciones que destacan la significación de la pareja parental para el desarrollo de la "capacidad triangular" en la primera infancia, los autores - que trabajan como coterapeutas hace años - consideran e ilustran el valor de la coterapia como una forma de lo que Ogden (1994) describió como "acción interpretativa". La acción interpretativa se relaciona con los medios no verbales por los cuales los terapeutas comunican su entendimiento de la dinámica intersubjetiva inconsciente que afecta el proceso terapéutico.

RÉSUMÉ La psychothérapie influence par l'intermédiaire des communications aussi bien implicites qu'explicites. Le fait d'avoir deux thérapeutes offre aux couples une nouvelle relation avec laquelle peuvent interagir les mondes internes des partenaires. Cela procure une expérience potentiellement transformatrice pour l'intégration des cerveaux et les rapports ravagés. Après une révision critique des arguments originalement offerts dans le Royaume Uni concernant l'emploi de deux thérapeutes en psychothérapie psychanalytique de couples, en incorporant des recherches qui mettent en évidence la signification du couple parentale pour le développement de la « capacité triangulaire ¼ dans la petite enfance, les auteurs - qui travaillent comme cothérapeutes depuis plusieurs années - envisagent et illustrent la valeur de la cothérapie en tant qu'une espèce de ce qu'Ogden (1 944) a décrit comme une « action interprétative ¼. L'action interprétative a des rapports avec des moyens non verbaux à l'aide desquels les thérapeutes communiquent sa compréhension de la dynamique intersubjective inconsciente qui atteint le processus thérapeutique.

Genetic Dissociation of Daily Sleep and Sleep Following Thermogenetic Sleep Deprivation in Drosophila.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Sleep rebound-the increase in sleep that follows sleep deprivation-is a hallmark of homeostatic sleep regulation that is conserved across the animal kingdom. However, both the mechanisms that underlie sleep rebound and its relationship to habitual daily sleep remain unclear. To address this, we developed an efficient thermogenetic method of inducing sleep deprivation in Drosophila that produces a substantial rebound, and applied the newly developed method to assess sleep rebound in a screen of 1,741 mutated lines. We used data generated by this screen to identify lines with reduced sleep rebound following thermogenetic sleep deprivation, and to probe the relationship between habitual sleep amount and sleep following thermogenetic sleep deprivation in Drosophila. METHODS: To develop a thermogenetic method of sleep deprivation suitable for screening, we thermogenetically stimulated different populations of wake-promoting neurons labeled by Gal4 drivers. Sleep rebound following thermogenetically-induced wakefulness varies across the different sets of wake-promoting neurons that were stimulated, from very little to quite substantial. Thermogenetic activation of neurons marked by the c584-Gal4 driver produces both strong sleep loss and a substantial rebound that is more consistent within genotypes than rebound following mechanical or caffeine-induced sleep deprivation. We therefore used this driver to induce sleep deprivation in a screen of 1,741 mutagenized lines generated by the Drosophila Gene Disruption Project. Flies were subjected to 9 h of sleep deprivation during the dark period and released from sleep deprivation 3 h before lights-on. Recovery was measured over the 15 h following sleep deprivation. Following identification of lines with reduced sleep rebound, we characterized baseline sleep and sleep depth before and after sleep deprivation for these hits. RESULTS: We identified two lines that consistently exhibit a blunted increase in the duration and depth of sleep after thermogenetic sleep deprivation. Neither of the two genotypes has reduced total baseline sleep. Statistical analysis across all screened lines shows that genotype is a strong predictor of recovery sleep, independent from effects of genotype on baseline sleep. CONCLUSIONS: Our data show that rebound sleep following thermogenetic sleep deprivation can be genetically separated from sleep at baseline. This suggests that genetically controlled mechanisms of sleep regulation not manifest under undisturbed conditions contribute to sleep rebound following thermogenetic sleep deprivation.