To explore the impacts of continuous Ganoderma lucidum cultivation on soil physicochemical factors, soil enzyme activity, and the metabolome of Ganoderma lucidum fruiting bodies, this study conducted two consecutive years of cultivation on the same plot of land. Soil physicochemical factors and enzyme activity were assessed, alongside non-targeted metabolomic analysis of the Ganoderma lucidum fruiting bodies under continuous cultivation. The findings unveiled that in the surface soil layer (0-15 cm), there was a declining trend in organic matter, ammonium nitrogen, available phosphorus, available potassium, pH, polyphenol oxidase, peroxidase, alkaline phosphatase, and sucrase, whereas nitrate nitrogen, electrical conductivity (EC), and salt content exhibited an upward trend. Conversely, in the deeper soil layer (15-30 cm), organic matter, ammonium nitrogen, available potassium, alkaline phosphatase, and sucrase demonstrated a decreasing trend, while nitrate nitrogen, available phosphorus, pH, EC, salt content, polyphenol oxidase, and soil peroxidase showed an increasing trend. Metabolomic analysis of Ganoderma lucidum fruiting bodies distinguished 64 significantly different metabolites between the GCK and GT groups, with 39 components having markedly higher relative contents in GCK and 25 components having significantly lower relative contents in GCK compared to GT. Moreover, among these metabolites, there were more types with higher contents in the fruiting bodies harvested in the first year (GCK) compared to those harvested in the second year (GT), with pronounced differences. KEGG pathway analysis revealed that GCK exhibited more complex metabolic pathways compared to GT. The metabolites of Ganoderma lucidum fruiting bodies were predominantly influenced by soil physicochemical factors and soil enzyme activity. In the surface soil layer (0-15 cm), the metabolome was significantly affected by soil pH, soil organic matter, available phosphorus, and soil alkaline phosphatase, while in the deeper soil layer (15-30 cm), differences in the Ganoderma lucidum metabolome were more influenced by soil alkaline phosphatase, soil catalase, pH, nitrate nitrogen, and soil sucrase.
Fruiting Bodies, Fungal , Reishi , Soil , Reishi/metabolism , Reishi/growth & development , Soil/chemistry , Fruiting Bodies, Fungal/metabolism , Fruiting Bodies, Fungal/growth & development , Nitrogen/metabolism , Nitrogen/analysis , Phosphorus/metabolism , Phosphorus/analysis , Nutrients/metabolism , Nutrients/analysis , Metabolome , Metabolomics/methods , Hydrogen-Ion Concentration
Three new phlegmaciod species of Thaxterogaster, T. borealicremeolinus, T. rufopurpureus, and T. sinopurpurascens spp. nov., from subtropical China were described based on their morphological characteristics and molecular data. Thaxterogaster borealicremeolinus belongs to the sect. Cremeolinae and differs from the other species in this section in its larger basidiospores and its habitat in the Northern Hemisphere associated with Quercus sp. trees. Thaxterogaster rufopurpureus and T. sinopurpurascens belong to sect. Purpurascentes, in which T. rufopurpureus is characterized by a pileus with a reddish-brown coloration when mature and a clavate stipe, while T. sinopurpurascens is characterized by a violet basidiomata, except for a greyish orange to brown pileus, the distinctly marginate bulb of its stipe, and its distribution in subtropical China. The phylogenetic analyses were performed based on nrITS, and detailed descriptions of the new species are provided herein.
This paper presents the physical basis of the EPIC cloud product algorithms and an initial evaluation of their performance. Since June 2015, EPIC has been providing observations of the sunlit side of the Earth with its 10 spectral channels ranging from the UV to the near-IR. A suite of algorithms has been developed to generate the standard EPIC Level 2 Cloud Products that include cloud mask, cloud effective pressure/height, and cloud optical thickness. The EPIC cloud mask adopts the threshold method and utilizes multichannel observations and ratios as tests. Cloud effective pressure/height is derived with observations from the O2 A-band (780 nm and 764 nm), and B-band (680 nm and 688 nm) pairs. The EPIC cloud optical thickness retrieval adopts a single channel approach where the 780 nm and 680 nm channels are used for retrievals over ocean and over land, respectively. Comparison with co-located cloud retrievals from geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO) and low earth orbit (LEO) satellites shows that the EPIC cloud product algorithms are performing well and are consistent with theoretical expectations. These products are publicly available at the Atmospheric Science Data Center at the NASA Langley Research Center for climate studies and for generating other geophysical products that require cloud properties as input.
Identification of monokaryons and their mating types and discrimination of hybrid offspring are key steps for the crossbreeding of Pleurotus tuoliensis (Bailinggu). However, conventional crossbreeding methods are troublesome and time consuming. Using RNA-seq technology, we developed new expressed sequence tag-simple sequence repeat (EST-SSR) markers for Bailinggu to easily and rapidly identify monokaryons and their mating types, genetic diversity and hybrid offspring. We identified 1110 potential EST-based SSR loci from a newly-sequenced Bailinggu transcriptome and then randomly selected 100 EST-SSRs for further validation. Results showed that 39, 43 and 34 novel EST-SSR markers successfully identified monokaryons from their parent dikaryons, differentiated two different mating types and discriminated F1 and F2 hybrid offspring, respectively. Furthermore, a total of 86 alleles were detected in 37 monokaryons using 18 highly informative EST-SSRs. The observed number of alleles per locus ranged from three to seven. Cluster analysis revealed that these monokaryons have a relatively high level of genetic diversity. Transfer rates of the EST-SSRs in the monokaryons of closely-related species Pleurotuseryngii var. ferulae and Pleurotus ostreatus were 72% and 64%, respectively. Therefore, our study provides new SSR markers and an efficient method to enhance the crossbreeding of Bailinggu and closely-related species.
In this work, we use the Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) FluxByCloudTyp data product, which calculates TOA shortwave and longwave fluxes for cloud categories defined by cloud optical depth (τ) and cloud top pressure (pc ), to evaluate the HadGEM2-A model with a simulator. The CERES Flux-by-cloud type simulator is comprised of a cloud generator that produces subcolumns with profiles of binary cloud fraction, a cloud property simulator that determines the (τ, pc ) cloud type for each subcolumn, and a radiative transfer model that calculates TOA fluxes. The identification of duplicate atmospheric profiles reduces the number of radiative transfer calculations required by approximately 97.6%. In the Southern Great Plains region in JFD (January, February, and December) 2008, the simulator shows that simulated cloud tops are higher in altitude than observed, but also have higher values of OLR than observed, leading to a compensating error that results in an average value of OLR that is close to observed. When the simulator is applied to the Southeast Pacific stratocumulus region in JJA 2008, the simulated cloud tops are primarily low in altitude; however, the clouds tend to be less numerous, and have higher optical depths than are observed. In addition to the increase in albedo that comes from having too many clouds with higher optical depth, the HadGEM2-A albedo is higher than observed for those cloud types that occur most frequently. The simulator is also applied to the entire 60° N - 60° S region, and it is found that there are fewer clouds than observed for most cloud types, but there are also higher albedos for most cloud types, which represents a compensating error in terms of the shortwave radiative budget.
While climate models and observations generally agree that climate feedbacks collectively amplify the surface temperature response to radiative forcing, the strength of the feedback estimates varies greatly, resulting in appreciable uncertainty in equilibrium climate sensitivity. Because climate feedbacks respond differently to different spatial variations in temperature, short-term observational records have thus far only provided a weak constraint for climate feedbacks operating under global warming. Further complicating matters is the likelihood of considerable time variation in the effective global climate feedback parameter under transient warming. There is a need to continue to revisit the underlying assumptions used in the traditional forcing-feedback framework, with an emphasis on how climate models and observations can best be utilized to reduce the uncertainties. Model simulations can also guide observational requirements and provide insight on how the observational record can most effectively be analyzed in order to make progress in this critical area of climate research.
A scanning spectral photometer is deployed on a rigid coastal ocean platform to measure upwelling solar radiances from the sea surface at nine elevation angles spanning 150 degrees of azimuth. Measured radiance distributions at 500 nm wavelength have been compared with traditional model simulations employing the Cox and Munk distribution of wave slopes. The model captures the general features of the observed angular reflectance distributions, but: (a) the observed peak value of sunglint near the specular direction is larger than simulated, except for a very calm sea; the model-measurement differences increase with wind speed and are largest for low solar elevation; (b) the observed sunglint is wider than simulated. In contrast to some previous studies, our results do not show a clear dependence of the mean square sea-surface slope on stability (air-sea temperature difference).
From exoR'-11 which could complement two Exo(-) mutants of R. huakuii 107: NA03 and NA10, a 2.0kb BglI fragment was subcloned in pRK415. The resulted plasmid pJB-H701 could restore the Exo(-) phenotype of NA03 and NA10. The complete nucleotide sequence of the fragment was determined, which contains the structural genes of a glucosyl-transferase, as well as the 5'- and 3'- flanking regions. An open reading frame of 984 base pairs was identified as R. huakuii exoA gene. The MW of ExoA, as deduced from the nucleotide sequence, was estimated as 35 kD. Comparison of the nucleotide sequences revealed a high similarity between exoA genes of R. huakuii and R. meliloti. The deduced amino acid sequence of R. huakuii ExoA also showed a high similarity with that of R. meliloti ExoA. Furthermore, the exoA-lacZ transcription fusion gene was constructed and the expression of exoA-lacZ was analyzed.
We have subcloned two plasmids, pWS-6BP1 and pWS-6BP2, from the 8.5 kb DNA fragment of plasmid pJB22-B6. The plasmid of pWS-6BP1, with a 5.8 kb DNA fragment, can complement the exopolysaccharide-deficient mutant NA06 and NA12 of Rhizobium huakuii strain 107, but the plasmid pWS-6BP2, with a 2.6 kb DNA fragment can only complement NA12. The effective nodules formed by the wild type strain 107 (Rh107) contain lots of bacteriods; the ineffective nodules formed by the mutant NA06 and NA12 contain few bacteroids. Although the nodule formed by Exo(+) transconjugants are ineffective, the bacteria can be successfully released into the cells and form lots of bacteroids. The Rh107 produces acidic exopolysaccharides (EPS) of high molecular weight (HMW) in large amount with only small amount of low molecular weight (LMW) forms. EPS secreted by mutants NA06 and NA12 are just the other way round with LMW in higher amount than HMW ones. They also produce an EPS with molecular weight in between. The EPS secreted by the Exo(+) transconjugants is more like the EPS of Rh107 than that of mutants, although their component and structure are still different from that of Rh107.
