Functional and epigenetic changes in monocytes from adults immunized with an AS01-adjuvanted vaccine.

The adjuvant AS01 plays a key role in the immunogenicity of several approved human vaccines with demonstrated high efficacy. Its adjuvant effect relies on activation of the innate immune system. However, specific effects of AS01-adjuvanted vaccines on innate cell function and epigenetic remodeling, as described for Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) and influenza vaccines, are still unknown. We assessed the long-term functional and epigenetic changes in circulating monocytes and dendritic cells induced by a model vaccine containing hepatitis B surface antigen and AS01 in healthy adults (NCT01777295). The AS01-adjuvanted vaccine, but not an Alum-adjuvanted vaccine, increased the number of circulating monocytes and their expression of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DR, which correlated with the magnitude of the memory CD4+ T cell response. Single-cell analyses revealed epigenetic alterations in monocyte and dendritic cell subsets, affecting accessibility of transcription factors involved in cell functions including activator protein-1 (AP-1), GATA, C/EBP, and interferon regulatory factor. The functional changes were characterized by a reduced proinflammatory response to Toll-like receptor activation and an improved response to interferon-γ, a cytokine critical for the adjuvant's mode of action. Epigenetic changes were most evident shortly after the second vaccine dose in CD14+ monocytes, for which accessibility differences of some transcription factors could persist for up to 6 months postvaccination. Together, we show that reprogramming of monocyte subsets occurs after vaccination with an AS01-adjuvanted vaccine, an effect that may contribute to the impact of vaccination beyond antigen-specific protection.

HIV-related immune activation attenuates polyfunctional IgG and memory B-cell responses to Tdap immunization during pregnancy.

BACKGROUND: Maternal pertussis vaccination with Tdap vaccine is recommended to protect newborns from severe postnatal infection. HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU) infants have a higher incidence of pertussis infection and may particularly benefit from maternal immunization. The impact of HIV infection on the quality of IgG and memory B cell (MBC) responses to Tdap vaccination in pregnant women (PW) living with HIV (PWH) is unknown. METHODS: In this observational study, humoral immune responses to Tdap vaccination, including IgG levels, Fc-dependent effector functions, and MBC frequencies, were measured before and after vaccination in 40 PWH and 42 HIV-uninfected PW. Placental transfer of IgG and avidity were assessed in cord blood (CB). Soluble and cellular immune activation markers were quantified at baseline. FINDINGS: One month after vaccination, PWH had lower frequencies of MBC compared with HIV-uninfected PW. At delivery, PWH had attenuated pertussis-specific IgG levels and Fc-dependent effector functions. Reduced levels of maternal vaccine polyfunctional IgG and IgG avidity were transferred to HEU as compared to HIV-unexposed newborns. After adjustment with ethnicity, maternal antibody levels and gestational age at vaccination, HIV infection was independently associated with decreased levels of PT specific-IgG in CB. Both maternal and neonatal pertussis-specific IgG responses as well as PT-specific IgG avidity were inversely correlated with maternal sCD14 levels before vaccination among PWH. INTERPRETATION: Maternal HIV infection is associated with attenuated humoral immune responses to Tdap vaccination that correlate with sCD14. Suboptimal transfer of maternal immunity may further increase the risk of severe pertussis infection in HEU infants. FUNDING: This work was supported by IRIS Fund managed by the Foundation Roi Baudouin [2017J1820690206902], Association Vésale pour la Recherche Médicale and the Medical Council of CHU Saint-Pierre and has been funded in part with Federal funds from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, US Department of Health and Human Services, under Award No. U19AI145825. N.D. is a clinical researcher and A.M. is Research Director at the Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique (F.R.S.-FNRS), Belgium. M.E.A. was partially supported by NIHNIAID1U19AI14825. This article is published with the support of the Fondation Universitaire of Belgium.

Impact of pregnancy on polyfunctional IgG and memory B cell responses to Tdap immunization.

BACKGROUND: Maternal pertussis immunization using Tdap vaccine is recommended in many countries to protect newborns from severe post-natal infection. Immunological changes during pregnancy may influence the response to vaccines. The quality of IgG and memory B cell responses to Tdap immunization in pregnant women has not yet been described. METHODS: The impact of pregnancy on the response to Tdap vaccination was assessed by comparing humoral immune responses in 42 pregnant and 39 non-pregnant women. The levels of serum pertussis antigens and tetanus toxoid-specific IgG, IgG subclasses, IgG Fc-mediated effector functions, as well as memory B cell frequencies were assessed before and at several time points after vaccination. RESULTS: Tdap immunization induced similar levels of pertussis and tetanus-specific IgG and IgG subclasses in pregnant and non-pregnant women. Pregnant women produced IgG promoting complement deposition, and neutrophils and macrophages phagocytosis at levels comparable to non-pregnant women. They were also able to expand pertussis and tetanus-specific memory B cells at similar frequencies as non-pregnant women, suggesting equivalent "boostability". Higher levels of vaccine-specific IgG, IgG subclasses, and IgG Fc-mediated effector functions were detected in cord blood as compared to maternal blood, indicating efficient transport across the placenta. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that pregnancy does not affect the quality of effector IgG and memory B cell responses to Tdap immunization and that polyfunctional IgG are efficiently transferred across the placenta. REGISTRY'S URL AND THE TRIAL'S REGISTRATION NUMBER: ClinicalTrials.Gov (NCT03519373).

Inflammatory parameters associated with systemic reactogenicity following vaccination with adjuvanted hepatitis B vaccines in humans.

BACKGROUND: Adjuvants like AS01B increase the immunogenicity of vaccines and generally cause increased transient reactogenicity compared with Alum. A phase II randomized trial was conducted to characterize the response to AS01B and Alum adjuvanted vaccines. A post-hoc analysis was performed to examine the associations between reactogenicity and innate immune parameters. METHODS: The trial involved 60 hepatitis B-naïve adults aged 18-45 years randomized 1:1 to receive either two doses of HBsAg-AS01B on Day (D)0 and D30, or three doses of HBsAg-Alum on D0, D30, D180. Prior to vaccination, all subjects received placebo injection in order to differentiate the impact of injection process and the vaccination. Main outcomes included reactogenicity symptoms, vital signs, blood cytokines, biochemical and hematological parameters after vaccination. Associations were explored using linear regression. FINDINGS: The vaccine with AS01B induced higher HBsAg-specific antibody levels than Alum. Local and systemic symptoms were more frequent in individuals who received HBsAg AS01B/Alum vaccine or placebo, but were mild and short-lived. Blood levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), bilirubin, leukocyte, monocyte and neutrophil counts increased rapidly and transiently after AS01B but not after Alum or placebo. Lymphocyte counts decreased in the AS01B group and lactate dehydrogenase levels decreased after Alum. Modelling revealed associations between systemic symptoms and increased levels of CRP and IL-6 after the first HBsAg-AS01B or HBsAg-Alum immunization. Following the second vaccine dose, CRP, IL-6, IP-10, IFN-γ, MIP-1ß and MCP-2 were identified as key parameters associated with systemic symptoms. These observations were confirmed using an independent data set extracted from a previous study of the immune response to HBsAg-adjuvanted vaccines (NCT00805389). CONCLUSIONS: IL-6 and IFN-γ signals were associated with systemic reactogenicity following administration of AS01B-adjuvanted vaccine. These signals were similar to those previously associated with antibody and T-cell responses induced by HBsAg-adjuvanted vaccines, suggesting that similar innate immune signals may underlie adjuvant reactogenicity and immunogenicity. TRIAL REGISTRATION: www.clinicaltrials.gov NCT01777295.

Transfer of Maternal Antimicrobial Immunity to HIV-Exposed Uninfected Newborns.

The transfer of maternal immune factors to the newborn is critical for protection from infectious disease in early life. Maternally acquired passive immunity provides protection until the infant is beyond early life's increased susceptibility to severe infections or until active immunity is achieved following infant's primary immunization. However, as reviewed here, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection alters the transfer of immune factors from HIV-infected mothers to the HIV-exposed newborns and young infants. This may relate to the immune activation in HIV-infected pregnant women, associated with the production of inflammatory cytokines at the maternofetal interface associated with inflammatory responses in the newborn. We also summarize mother-targeting interventions to improve the health of infants born to HIV-infected women, such as immunization during pregnancy and reduction of maternal inflammation. Maternal immunization offers the potential to compensate for the decreased transplacentally transferred maternal antibodies observed in HIV-exposed infants. Current data suggest reduced immunogenicity of vaccines in HIV-infected pregnant women, possibly reducing the protective impact of maternal immunization for HIV-exposed infants. Fortunately, levels of antibodies appear preserved in the breast milk of HIV-infected women, which supports the recommendation to breast-feed during antiretroviral treatment to protect HIV-exposed infants.

Ontogeny of myeloid cells.

Granulocytes, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells (DCs) represent a subgroup of leukocytes, collectively called myeloid cells. During the embryonic development of mammalians, myelopoiesis occurs in a stepwise fashion that begins in the yolk sac and ends up in the bone marrow (BM). During this process, these early monocyte progenitors colonize various organs such as the brain, liver, skin, and lungs and differentiate into resident macrophages that will self-maintain throughout life. DCs are constantly replenished from BM precursors but can also arise from monocytes in inflammatory conditions. In this review, we summarize the different types of myeloid cells and discuss new insights into their early origin and development in mice and humans from fetal to adult life. We specifically focus on the function of monocytes, macrophages, and DCs at these different developmental stages and on the intrinsic and environmental influences that may drive these adaptations.

A conventional protein kinase C inhibitor targeting IRF-3-dependent genes differentially regulates IL-12 family members.

Protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms play a critical role in the regulation of innate immune responses. We have previously demonstrated that conventional PKC (cPKC) α is involved in interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3) activation and IFN-ß synthesis. Herein, we investigated the role of cPKCs in the regulation of IL-12 family members expression mediated by the Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and TLR4. First, inhibition of cPKCs activity in human DCs by a cPKC-specific inhibitor, Gö6976 downregulated the expression of IL-12p70 and IL-27p28 but not IL-12/IL-23p40, IL-23, IL-27EBI3 induced by LPS or poly(I:C). Furthermore, reporter gene assays in RAW 264.7 macrophages showed that cPKCs regulate IL-12p35 and IL-27p28 promoter activities since Gö6976 repressed LPS and poly(I:C)-mediated transcriptional activities of IL-12p35 and IL-27p28. In contrast, no effect was observed with IL-12/IL-23p40 and IL-23p19 reporter constructs. These results prompted us to study the role of IRF-3 on IL-23 expression. Bone marrow-derived DC (BMDCs) from IRF-3(-/-) mice produced comparable levels of IL-23 induced by both LPS and poly(I:C) as compared to wild type BMDCs, indicating that IRF-3 is not involved in IL-23 production. Finally, BMDCs from PKCα(-/-) mice displayed a reduced synthesis of IL-27 induced by poly(I:C). Collectively, these data identify cPKCs as critical components that control IRF-3-dependent IL-12p35 and IL-27p28 gene expression downstream of TLR3 and TLR4.

IL-23R and TCR signaling drives the generation of neonatal Vgamma9Vdelta2 T cells expressing high levels of cytotoxic mediators and producing IFN-gamma and IL-17.

The immune system in early life is regarded as immature. However, the IL-12 family member IL-23 is highly produced upon TLR stimulation by neonatal DCs. Human adult Vγ9Vδ2 T cells can be stimulated specifically via their TCR by phosphoantigens (as the pathogen-derived HMB-PP) or agents and infections that lead to their endogenous accumulation (as the aminobisphosphonate zoledronate). As increasing evidence indicates that γδ T cells are especially important in early life, we investigated the effect of IL-23 on neonatal Vγ9Vδ2 T cells stimulated via their TCR. Zoledronate induced clear proliferation and IFN-γ production in neonatal Vγ9Vδ2 T cells. In contrast, HMB-PP did not elicit a distinct response unless at high concentrations. Addition of IL-23 to zoledronate enhanced the expression of IFN-γ and generated a distinct, IFN-γ-negative, neonatal Vγ9Vδ2 T cell population producing IL-17. Furthermore, IL-23 significantly enhanced the expression of a range of cytotoxic mediators (perforin, granzymes, granulysin). Although the costimulatory effect of IL-23 on IFN-γ and cytotoxic mediators was also observed within adult Vγ9Vδ2 T cells, the induction of an IL-17+IFN-γ- subset was unique to neonatal Vγ9Vδ2 T cells. In conclusion, neonatal DC-derived IL-23 combined with specific TCR signaling drives the generation of neonatal Vγ9Vδ2 T cells equipped with a range of cytotoxic mediators and distinct subpopulations producing IFN-γ and IL-17.

Acquisition of adult-like TLR4 and TLR9 responses during the first year of life.

BACKGROUND: Characteristics of the human neonatal immune system are thought to be responsible for heightened susceptibility to infectious pathogens and poor responses to vaccine antigens. Using cord blood as a source of immune cells, many reports indicate that the response of neonatal monocytes and dendritic cells (DC) to Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists differs significantly from that of adult cells. Herein, we analyzed the evolution of these responses within the first year of life. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Blood samples from children (0, 3, 6, 9, 12 month old) and healthy adults were stimulated ex vivo with bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS, TLR4 agonist) or CpG oligonucleotides (TLR9 agonist). We determined phenotypic maturation of monocytes, myeloid (m) and plasmacytoid (p) DC and production of cytokines in the culture supernatants. We observed that surface expression of CD80 and HLA-DR reaches adult levels within the first 3 months of life for mDCs and 6-9 months of life for monocytes and pDCs. In response to LPS, production of TNF-alpha, IP-10 and IL-12p70 reached adult levels between 6-9 months of life. In response to CpG stimulation, production of type I IFN-dependent chemokines (IP-10 and CXCL9) gradually increased with age but was still limited in 1-year old infants as compared to adult controls. Finally, cord blood samples stimulated with CpG ODN produced large amounts of IL-6, IL-8, IL-1beta and IL-10, a situation that was not observed for 3 month-old infants. CONCLUSIONS: The first year of life represents a critical period during which adult-like levels of TLR responses are reached for most but not all cytokine responses.

Human cytomegalovirus elicits fetal gammadelta T cell responses in utero.

The fetus and infant are highly susceptible to viral infections. Several viruses, including human cytomegalovirus (CMV), cause more severe disease in early life compared with later life. It is generally accepted that this is a result of the immaturity of the immune system. gammadelta T cells are unconventional T cells that can react rapidly upon activation and show major histocompatibility complex-unrestricted activity. We show that upon CMV infection in utero, fetal gammadelta T cells expand and become differentiated. The expansion was restricted to Vgamma9-negative gammadelta T cells, irrespective of their Vdelta chain expression. Differentiated gammadelta T cells expressed high levels of IFN-gamma, transcription factors T-bet and eomes, natural killer receptors, and cytotoxic mediators. CMV infection induced a striking enrichment of a public Vgamma8Vdelta1-TCR, containing the germline-encoded complementary-determining-region-3 (CDR3) delta1-CALGELGDDKLIF/CDR3gamma8-CATWDTTGWFKIF. Public Vgamma8Vdelta1-TCR-expressing cell clones produced IFN-gamma upon coincubation with CMV-infected target cells in a TCR/CD3-dependent manner and showed antiviral activity. Differentiated gammadelta T cells and public Vgamma8Vdelta1-TCR were detected as early as after 21 wk of gestation. Our results indicate that functional fetal gammadelta T cell responses can be generated during development in utero and suggest that this T cell subset could participate in antiviral defense in early life.

PKC-alpha controls MYD88-dependent TLR/IL-1R signaling and cytokine production in mouse and human dendritic cells.

Conventional PKC (cPKC)-alpha regulates TRIF-dependent IFN response factor 3 (IRF3)-mediated gene transcription, but its role in MyD88-dependent TLR signaling remains unknown. Herein, we demonstrate that PKC-alpha is induced by several MyD88-dependent TLR/IL-1R ligands and regulates cytokine expression in human and murine DC. First, inhibition of cPKC activity in human DC by cPKC-specific inhibitors, Gö6976 or HBDDe, downregulated the production of classical inflammatory/immunomodulatory cytokines induced by TLR2, TLR5 or IL-1R but not by TLR3 stimulation. Similarly, dominant negative PKC-alpha repressed Pam(3)CSK(4) induced NF-kappaB- and AP-1-driven promoter activities in TLR2-expressing human embryonic kidney 293 T cells. Dominant negative PKC-alpha inhibited NF-kappaB reporter activity mediated by overexpression of MyD88 but not TRIF. Unexpectedly, BM-derived DC from PKC-alpha(-/-) mice exhibited decreased TNF-alpha and IL-12p40 production induced by both MyD88- and TRIF-dependent ligands. Furthermore, PKC-alpha is coupled to TLR2 signaling proximal to MyD88 since MAPK and IkappaB kinase-alpha/beta phosphorylations and IkappaBalpha degradation were inhibited in PKC-alpha(-/-) BM-derived DC. Finally, co-immunoprecipitation assays revealed that PKC-alpha physically interacts with Pam(3)CSK(4) activated TLR2 in WT but not in MyD88(-/-) DC. Collectively this study identifies a species-specific role of PKC-alpha as a key component that controls MyD88-dependent cytokine gene expression in human and mouse but differentially regulates production of TRIF-dependent cytokines.

Phenotype and function of neonatal DC.

Newborns face complex physical and immunological changes before and after birth. Although the uterus is a sterile environment for the fetus, it also contains non-self material from the mother. Birth involves the transition from the sterile intra-uterine environment to an environment rich in microbes and requires rapid induction of appropriate responses to control these microbes. In this review we focus on the similarities and differences of human and murine neonatal DC and their reaction to various stimuli. A better understanding of the newborn immune system--in particular, the DC-T-cell interaction--will be beneficial for the development of improved strategies to prevent or treat infections in this vulnerable population and prepare the immune system to cope with allergens and tumors later in life.

Interferon regulatory factor 7-mediated responses are defective in cord blood plasmacytoid dendritic cells.

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) are specialized in massive production of type I interferons (IFN) upon viral infections. Activation of IFN regulatory factor (IRF)-7 is critically required for the synthesis of type I IFN in pDC. IRF-7 is highly expressed by resting pDC and translocates into the nucleus to initiate type I IFN transcription. In a previous work, we observed an impaired IFN-alpha production in enriched cord blood pDC following a TLR9 stimulation using CpG oligonucleotides. Herein, we show that highly purified pDC from cord blood exhibit a profound defect in their capacity to produce IFN-alpha/beta in response to TLR9 as well as to TLR7 ligation or human CMV or HSV-1 exposure. Microarray experiments indicate that expression of the majority of type I IFN subtypes induced by a TLR7 agonist is reduced in cord blood pDC. We next demonstrated a reduced nuclear translocation of IRF-7 in cord blood pDC following CpG and HSV stimulation as compared to adult pDC. We conclude that impaired IRF-7 translocation in cord blood pDC is associated with defective expression of type I IFN genes. Our data provide a molecular understanding for the decreased ability of cord blood pDC to produce type I IFN upon viral stimulation.

IL-27 synthesis induced by TLR ligation critically depends on IFN regulatory factor 3.

IL-27 is a heterodimeric cytokine composed of EBV-induced gene 3 and p28. Produced by dendritic cells (DCs) in response to TLR ligands, IL-27 recently emerged as a key regulator of inflammatory responses. In this study, we first demonstrate that Toll/IL-1R-containing adaptor inducing IFN-beta and its associated IFN regulatory factor (IRF) 3 transcription factor are critically involved in IL-27p28 expression in mouse DCs stimulated by TLR ligands. We then show that IL-27 serum levels are dramatically reduced in IRF3(-/-) upon LPS injection, indicating a critical role for IRF3 in TLR4-mediated IL-27 production in vivo. We identified an IRF3-binding site within the IL-27p28 promoter region which is required for IL-27p28 gene activation in reporter gene assays. In human DCs, IL-27p28 mRNA was preferentially induced by Toll/IL-1R-containing adaptor inducing IFN-beta-coupled TLR ligands and following CMV infection. Furthermore, chromatin immunoprecipitation studies demonstrate that IRF3 is recruited to the endogenous p28 promoter in TLR4-stimulated human DCs. We conclude that IRF3 activation is a master switch for IL-27 synthesis.

Protein kinase Calpha is involved in interferon regulatory factor 3 activation and type I interferon-beta synthesis.

Protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms are critically involved in the regulation of innate immune responses. Herein, we investigated the role of conventional PKCalpha in the regulation of IFN-beta gene expression mediated by the Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) signaling pathway. Inhibition of conventional PKC (cPKC) activity in monocyte-derived dendritic cells or TLR3-expressing cells by an isoform-specific inhibitor, Gö6976, selectively inhibited IFN-beta synthesis induced by double-stranded RNA polyinosine-polycytidylic acid. Furthermore, reporter gene assays confirmed that PKCalpha regulates IFN-beta promoter activity, since overexpression of dominant negative PKCalpha but not PKCbeta(I) repressed interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3)-dependent but not NF-kappaB-mediated promoter activity upon TLR3 engagement in HEK 293 cells. Dominant negative PKCalpha inhibited IRF-3 transcriptional activity mediated by overexpression of TIR domain-containing adapter inducing IFN-beta and Tank-binding kinase-1. Additional biochemical analysis demonstrated that Gö6976-treated dendritic cells exhibited IRF-3 phosphorylation, dimerization, nuclear translocation, and DNA binding activity analogous to their control counterparts in response to polyinosine-polycytidylic acid. In contrast, co-immunoprecipitation experiments revealed that TLR3-induced cPKC activity is essential for mediating the interaction of IRF-3 but not p65/RelA with the co-activator CREB-binding protein. Furthermore, PKCalpha knock-down with specific small interfering RNA inhibited IFN-beta expression and down-regulated IRF-3-dependent promoter activity, establishing PKCalpha as a component of TLR3 signaling that regulates IFN-beta gene expression by targeting IRF-3-CREB-binding protein interaction. Finally, we analyzed the involvement of cPKCs in other signaling pathways leading to IFN-beta synthesis. These experiments revealed that cPKCs play a role in the synthesis of IFN-beta induced via both TLR-dependent and -independent pathways.

Interferon regulatory factor 3-dependent responses to lipopolysaccharide are selectively blunted in cord blood cells.

The synthesis of interferon-beta (IFNbeta) and IFN-inducible factors elicited by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) depends on the transcriptional activity of interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3) downstream of Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4). To examine the ability of human newborns to mount TLR4-mediated IRF-3-dependent responses, we analyzed the pattern of genes expressed on the addition of LPS to cord blood or cord blood monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDCs). Expression of IFNbeta and IFN-inducible genes was selectively impaired in neonatal blood and moDCs as compared with their adult counterparts. This selective defect was confirmed by microarray experiments on moDCs. Altered expression of IFN-inducible genes was related to impaired IFNbeta synthesis because IFNbeta signaling was functional in neonatal moDCs. However, addition of exogenous IFNbeta failed to restore LPS-induced IL-12p70 synthesis which was previously shown to be defective in neonatal moDCs. Although LPS-induced IRF-3 nuclear translocation was observed both in adult and neonatal moDCs, IRF-3 DNA-binding activity and association with the coactivator CREB-binding protein (CBP) were decreased in neonatal as compared with adult moDCs. We conclude that impaired IRF-3/CBP interaction in neonatal blood cells exposed to LPS is associated with impaired expression of IFNbeta and IFN-inducible genes. Because IRF-3 activity is also required for IL-12p70 synthesis, our findings provide a molecular basis for the decreased ability of LPS-stimulated neonatal moDCs to elicit Th1-type responses.

Rottlerin inhibits human T cell responses.

Rottlerin is a pharmacological inhibitor of protein kinase C (PKC) theta, a novel PKC selectively expressed in T lymphocytes. PKC theta is known to regulate T cell receptor (TCR)/CD28 signalling pathways in T lymphocytes, but the impact of PKC theta inhibition on human T cell responses remains undefined. In this work, we describe the effects of rottlerin on the responses of CD4+ and CD8+ human T lymphocytes upon polyclonal activation. We observed a dose-dependent inhibition of CD4+ and CD8+ T cell proliferation in response to anti-CD3/anti-CD28 antibodies stimulation in the presence of rottlerin. This inhibition was associated with impaired CD25 expression and decreased interleukin (IL)-2 production in activated T cells. In contrast, rottlerin did not alter IL-2-induced T cell proliferation. Furthermore, we demonstrated that rottlerin blocked interferon (IFN) gamma, IL-10 and IL-13 mRNA expression in TCR/CD28 activated CD4+ T cells. These findings place rottlerin as a potent immunosuppressive agent for the development of novel therapies in T cell mediated immune disorders.

Pertussis toxin activates adult and neonatal naive human CD4+ T lymphocytes.

Pertussis toxin (PTX) is known to be mitogenic for T lymphocytes, but its direct action on naive human T cells has not been specified. Herein, we show that PTX induces the proliferation of purified adult CD45RA(+)CD4(+) T cells independently of its ADP-ribosyltransferase activity. PTX directly induces TNF-alpha and IL-2 mRNA expression, modulates the level of several cell surface receptors and induces Forkhead box p3 (Foxp3) protein accumulation in naive CD4(+) T cells. Addition of autologous dendritic cells was found to be required for the production of high levels of IFN-gamma by PTX-stimulated naive T cells. These effects of PTX occurred in conjunction with activation of NF-kappaB and NFAT transcription factors. Overall, responses of neonatal CD4(+) T cells to PTX were similar to those of adult CD45RA(+)CD4(+) naive T cells except for their blunted CD40 ligand up-regulation. We suggest that the adjuvant properties of PTX during primary cell-mediated immune responses involve a direct action on naive T lymphocytes in addition to activation of antigen-presenting cells.

Interferon regulatory factor 3 is involved in Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)- and TLR3-induced IL-12p35 gene activation.

Interleukin-12 (IL-12) is a heterodimeric cytokine produced by dendritic cells (DCs) in response to Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligation. While the mechanisms regulating IL-12p40 chain gene expression are well characterized, molecular events involved in IL-12p35 chain gene activation remain to be clarified. Since IL-12p35 mRNA was induced in human DCs activated through TLR3 or TLR4 but not TLR2, we investigated the potential role of interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3) in IL-12p35 gene transactivation. First, a binding site for IRF-3 named interferon-stimulated response element-1 (ISRE-1) was identified in the human IL-12p35 promoter region between nucleotides -251 and -240. The ISRE-1 site was required for IL-12p35 gene activation in RAW 264.7 cells stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or PolyI:C. Ectopic expression of IRF-3 was found to up-regulate IL-12p35 gene activation in the same system. Furthermore, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) studies demonstrated that IRF-3 is recruited to ISRE-1 site in TLR4- or TLR3-stimulated human DCs. Finally, experiments on DCs from IRF-3-deficient mice established that TLR4-induced IL-12p35 mRNA and IL-12p70 synthesis are impaired in absence of IRF-3. We conclude that IRF-3 binds to a critical cis-acting element in the IL-12p35 gene promoter and thereby represents a key factor for the induction of IL-12p70 synthesis in DCs.

Preferential production of the IL-12(p40)/IL-23(p19) heterodimer by dendritic cells from human newborns.

Human newborns present impaired T helper type 1 cell responses, associated with a defect in the synthesis of IL-12 by dendritic cells (DC). IL-23 is a heterodimeric cytokine structurally related to IL-12, implicated in protective and autoimmune responses. We recently showed that upon activation neonatal T cells up-regulate a functional IL-23 receptor and that this cytokine polarizes the differentiation of naive T cells. We therefore investigated the capacity of neonatal DC to secrete IL-23. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation induced the transcription of IL-23(p19) mRNA in both adult and neonatal DC, in sharp contrast to the repressed IL-12(p35) gene expression observed in neonatal cells. In comparison to adult DC, neonatal DC produced similar levels of IL-23 protein, in reponse to Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2- and TLR-3 ligands, and higher levels in response to TLR-4- or TLR-8 ligands. The same profile was observed in neonatal mononuclear cells. The supernatant of LPS-stimulated DC induced the secretion of IL-17 by polyclonally activated neonatal CD8(+) T cells, confirming the IL-23 bioactivity. Altogether, these observations strongly suggest that IL-23 could play a role in the immune system of human newborns. In particular, a functional IL-23/IL-17 axis might compensate a suboptimal IL-12/IFN-gamma pathway in early life.