Bivalent complexes of PRC1 with orthologs of BRD4 and MOZ/MORF target developmental genes in Drosophila.

Regulatory decisions in Drosophila require Polycomb group (PcG) proteins to maintain the silent state and Trithorax group (TrxG) proteins to oppose silencing. Since PcG and TrxG are ubiquitous and lack apparent sequence specificity, a long-standing model is that targeting occurs via protein interactions; for instance, between repressors and PcG proteins. Instead, we found that Pc-repressive complex 1 (PRC1) purifies with coactivators Fs(1)h [female sterile (1) homeotic] and Enok/Br140 during embryogenesis. Fs(1)h is a TrxG member and the ortholog of BRD4, a bromodomain protein that binds to acetylated histones and is a key transcriptional coactivator in mammals. Enok and Br140, another bromodomain protein, are orthologous to subunits of a mammalian MOZ/MORF acetyltransferase complex. Here we confirm PRC1-Br140 and PRC1-Fs(1)h interactions and identify their genomic binding sites. PRC1-Br140 bind developmental genes in fly embryos, with analogous co-occupancy of PRC1 and a Br140 ortholog, BRD1, at bivalent loci in human embryonic stem (ES) cells. We propose that identification of PRC1-Br140 "bivalent complexes" in fly embryos supports and extends the bivalency model posited in mammalian cells, in which the coexistence of H3K4me3 and H3K27me3 at developmental promoters represents a poised transcriptional state. We further speculate that local competition between acetylation and deacetylation may play a critical role in the resolution of bivalent protein complexes during development.

The Regulation of rRNA Gene Transcription during Directed Differentiation of Human Embryonic Stem Cells.

It has become increasingly clear that proper cellular control of pluripotency and differentiation is related to the regulation of rRNA synthesis. To further our understanding of the role that the regulation of rRNA synthesis has in pluripotency we monitored rRNA synthesis during the directed differentiation of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). We discovered that the rRNA synthesis rate is reduced ~50% within 6 hours of ACTIVIN A treatment. This precedes reductions in expression of specific stem cell markers and increases in expression of specific germ layer markers. The reduction in rRNA synthesis is concomitant with dissociation of the Pol I transcription factor, UBTF, from the rRNA gene promoter and precedes any increase to heterochromatin throughout the rRNA gene. To directly investigate the role of rRNA synthesis in pluripotency, hESCs were treated with the Pol I inhibitor, CX-5461. The direct reduction of rRNA synthesis by CX-5461 induces the expression of markers for all three germ layers, reduces the expression of pluripotency markers, and is overall similar to the ACTIVIN A induced changes. This work indicates that the dissociation of UBTF from the rRNA gene, and corresponding reduction in transcription, represent early regulatory events during the directed differentiation of pluripotent stem cells.

Human Argonaute 2 Is Tethered to Ribosomal RNA through MicroRNA Interactions.

The primary role of the RNAi machinery is to promote mRNA degradation within the cytoplasm in a microRNA-dependent manner. However, both Dicer and the Argonaute protein family have expanded roles in gene regulation within the nucleus. To further our understanding of this role, we have identified chromatin binding sites for AGO2 throughout the 45S region of the human rRNA gene. The location of these sites was mirrored by the positions of AGO2 cross-linking sites identified via PAR-CLIP-seq. AGO2 binding to the rRNA within the nucleus was confirmed by RNA immunoprecipitation and quantitative-PCR. To explore a possible mechanism by which AGO2 could be recruited to the rRNA, we identified 1174 regions within the 45S rRNA transcript that have the ability to form a perfect duplex with position 2-6 (seed sequence) of each microRNA expressed in HEK293T cells. Of these potential AGO2 binding sites, 479 occurred within experimentally verified AGO2-rRNA cross-linking sites. The ability of AGO2 to cross-link to rRNA was almost completely lost in a DICER knock-out cell line. The transfection of miR-92a-2-3p into the noDICE cell line facilitated AGO2 cross-linking at a region of the rRNA that has a perfect seed match at positions 3-8, including a single G-U base pair. Knockdown of AGO2 within HEK293T cells causes a slight, but statistically significant increase in the overall rRNA synthesis rate but did not impact the ratio of processing intermediates or the recruitment of the Pol I transcription factor UBTF.

Argonaute 2 Binds Directly to tRNA Genes and Promotes Gene Repression in cis.

To further our understanding of the RNAi machinery within the human nucleus, we analyzed the chromatin and RNA binding of Argonaute 2 (AGO2) within human cancer cell lines. Our data indicated that AGO2 binds directly to nascent tRNA and 5S rRNA, and to the genomic loci from which these RNAs are transcribed, in a small RNA- and DICER-independent manner. AGO2 chromatin binding was not observed at non-TFIIIC-dependent RNA polymerase III (Pol III) genes or at extra-TFIIIC (ETC) sites, indicating that the interaction is specific for TFIIIC-dependent Pol III genes. A genome-wide analysis indicated that loss of AGO2 caused a global increase in mRNA expression level among genes that flank AGO2-bound tRNA genes. This effect was shown to be distinct from that of the disruption of DICER, DROSHA, or CTCF. We propose that AGO2 binding to tRNA genes has a novel and important regulatory role in human cells.

Impact of glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase on virulence factor production by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa establishes life-long chronic infections in the cystic fibrosis (CF) lung by utilizing various adaptation strategies. Some of these strategies include altering metabolic pathways to utilize readily available nutrients present in the host environment. The airway sputum contains various host-derived nutrients that can be utilized by P. aeruginosa, including phosphatidylcholine, a major component of lung surfactant. Pseudomonas aeruginosa can degrade phosphatidylcholine to glycerol and fatty acids to increase the availability of usable carbon sources in the CF lung. In this study, we show that some CF-adapted P. aeruginosa isolates utilize glycerol more efficiently as a carbon source than nonadapted isolates. Furthermore, a mutation in a gene required for glycerol utilization impacts the production of several virulence factors in both acute and chronic isolates of P. aeruginosa. Taken together, the results suggest that interference with this metabolic pathway may have potential therapeutic benefits.

The histone H2A deubiquitinase Usp16 regulates embryonic stem cell gene expression and lineage commitment.

Polycomb Repressive Complex 1 and histone H2A ubiquitination (ubH2A) contribute to embryonic stem cell (ESC) pluripotency by repressing lineage-specific gene expression. However, whether active deubiquitination co-regulates ubH2A levels in ESCs and during differentiation is not known. Here we report that Usp16, a histone H2A deubiquitinase, regulates H2A deubiquitination and gene expression in ESCs, and importantly, is required for ESC differentiation. Usp16 knockout is embryonic lethal in mice, but does not affect ESC viability or identity. Usp16 binds to the promoter regions of a large number of genes in ESCs, and Usp16 binding is inversely correlated with ubH2A levels, and positively correlates with gene expression levels. Intriguingly, Usp16(-/-) ESCs fail to differentiate due to ubH2A-mediated repression of lineage-specific genes. Finally, Usp16, but not a catalytically inactive mutant, rescues the differentiation defects of Usp16(-/-) ESCs. Therefore, this study identifies Usp16 and H2A deubiquitination as critical regulators of ESC gene expression and differentiation.