Rational design of short-chain dehydrogenase DHDR for efficient synthesis of (S)-equol.

(S)-equol, the most influential metabolite of daidzein in vivo, has aroused great attention due to the excellent biological activities. Although existing studies have accomplished the construction of its heterologous synthetic pathway in the context of anaerobicity and inefficiency of natural strains, the low productivity of (S)-equol limits its industrial application. Here, rational design strategies based on decreasing the pocket steric hindrance and fine-tuning the pocket microenvironment to systematically redesign the binding pocket of enzyme were developed and processed to the rate-limiting enzyme dihydrodaidzein reductase in (S)-equol synthesis. After iterative combinatorial mutagenesis, an effective mutant S118G/T169A capable of significantly increasing (S)-equol yield was obtained. Computational analyses illustrated that the main reason of the increased activity relied on the decreased critical distance and more stable interacting conformation. Then, the reaction optimization was performed, and the recombinant Escherichia coli whole-cell biocatalyst harboring S118G/T169A enabled the efficient conversion of 2 mM daidzein to (S)-equol, achieving conversion rate of 84.5 %, which was 2.9 times higher than that of the parental strain expressing wide type dihydrodaidzein reductase. This study provides an effective idea and a feasible method for enzyme modification and whole-cell catalytic synthesis of (S)-equol, and will greatly accelerate the process of industrial production.

Encapsulation of lycopene in Pickering emulsion stabilized by complexes of whey protein isolate fibrils and sodium alginate: Physicochemical property, structural characterization and in vitro digestion property.

In present study, whey protein isolate fibrils and sodium alginate complexes (WPIFs-SA) were prepared and further used to stabilize Pickering emulsions for lycopene delivery. The optimal interaction between WPIFs and SA occurred at pH 3.0, with a mass ratio of 2:1. Increasing the oil fractions and the content of WPIFs-SA complexes significantly improved Pickering emulsions' stability, concurrently reducing droplet size and increasing viscoelasticity. Meanwhile, it facilitated the formation of a thicker protective layer and a compact network structure around the oil droplets, offering better protection for lycopene against thermal and photo degradation. In vitro digestion studies revealed that as the oil fractions and complex contents increased, the lipolysis degree decreased. The engineered WPIFs-SA Pickering emulsion could be used as an innovative delivery system for the protection and delivery of lycopene.

Neuroprotection of the P2X7 receptor antagonist A740003 on retinal ganglion cells in experimental glaucoma.

The aim of this study was to explore the neuroprotective effects of the P2X7 receptor antagonist A740003 on retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in chronic intraocular hypertension (COH) experimental glaucoma mouse model. Bioinformatics was used to analyze the glaucoma-related genes. Western blot, real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR, and immunofluorescence staining techniques were employed to explore the mechanisms underlying the neuroprotective effects of A740003 on RGCs in COH retinas. Bioinformatic analysis revealed that oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and cell apoptosis were highly related to the pathogenesis of glaucoma. In COH retinas, intraocular pressure elevation significantly increased the levels of translocator protein, a marker of microglial activation, which could be reversed by intravitreal preinjection of A740003. A740003 also suppressed the increased mRNA levels of proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL) 1ß and tumor necrosis factor α in COH retinas. In addition, although the mRNA levels of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-4 and IL-10 were kept unchanged in COH retinas, administration of A740003 could increase their levels. The mRNA and protein levels of Bax and cleaved caspase-3 were increased in COH retinas, which could be partially reversed by A740003, while the levels of Bcl-2 kept unchanged in COH retinas with or without the injections of A740003. Furthermore, A740003 partially attenuated the reduction in the numbers of Brn-3a-positive RGCs in COH mice. A740003 could provide neuroprotective roles on RGCs by inhibiting the microglia activation, attenuating the retinal inflammatory response, reducing the apoptosis of RGCs, and enhancing the survival of RGCs in COH experimental glaucoma.

A clinical study of the local injection of a freshly manufactured 35 kDa hyaluronan fragment for treating chronic wounds.

This study manufactured a 35 kDa hyaluronan fragment (HA35) by enzymatically degrading high-molecular-weight HA using hyaluronidase PH20 derived from bovine testis. The research then examined the therapeutic efficacy of locally administered, tissue-permeable HA35 in alleviating chronic wounds and their associated neuropathic pain. For 20 patients with nonhealing wounds and associated pain lasting over three months, 100 mg of HA35 was injected daily into the healthy skin surrounding the chronic wound for 10 days. Self-assessments before and after treatment indicated that HA35 significantly enhanced wound healing. This was evidenced by the formation of fresh granulation tissue on the wounds (p < 0.0001); reduced darkness, redness, dryness, and damage in the skin surrounding the wounds (p < 0.0001), and a decrease in wound size (p < 0.001). Remarkably, HA35 injections alleviated pain associated with chronic wounds within 24 hours (p < 0.0001). It can be concluded that the low-molecular-weight hyaluronan fragment HA35 potentially enhances the immune response and angiogenesis during wound healing.

[Advances in the application of fecal microbiota transplantation for the treatment of nervous system diseases].

The intestinal microbiota exhibits a strong correlation with the function of the central nervous system, exerting influence on the host brain through neural pathways, immune pathways, and microbial metabolites along the gut-brain axis. Disorders in the composition of the intestinal microbial are closely associated with the onset and progression of neurological disorders, such as depression, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease. It has been proven that fecal microbiota transplantation can improve symptoms in animal models of neurological diseases and clinical patients. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the composition and function of the human intestinal microbiota, as well as the intricate the relationship between the human intestinal microbiota and nervous system diseases through the gut-brain axis. Additionally, it delves into the research advancements and underlying mechanism of fecal microbiota transplantation in the treatment of nervous system diseases. These findings offer novel insights and potential avenues for clinical interventions targeting nervous system diseases.

Extracellular Matrix-Mimetic Intrinsic Versatile Coating Derived from Marine Adhesive Protein Promotes Diabetic Wound Healing through Regulating the Microenvironment.

The management of diabetic wound healing remains a severe clinical challenge due to the complicated wound microenvironments, including abnormal immune regulation, excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS), and repeated bacterial infections. Herein, we report an extracellular matrix (ECM)-mimetic coating derived from scallop byssal protein (Sbp9Δ), which can be assembled in situ within 30 min under the trigger of Ca2+ driven by strong coordination interaction. The biocompatible Sbp9Δ coating and genetically programmable LL37-fused coating exhibit outstanding antioxidant, antibacterial, and immune regulatory properties in vitro. Proof-of-concept applications demonstrate that the coating can reliably promote wound healing in animal models, including diabetic mice and rabbits, ex vivo human skins, and Staphylococcus aureus-infected diabetic mice. In-depth mechanism investigation indicates that improved wound microenvironments accelerated wound repair, including alleviated bacterial infection, lessened inflammation, appearance of abundant M2-type macrophages, removal of ROS, promoted angiogenesis, and re-epithelialization. Collectively, our investigation provides an in situ, convenient, and effective approach for diabetic wound repair.

Smoking on the risk of acute respiratory distress syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between smoking and the risk of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) has been recognized, but the conclusions have been inconsistent. This systematic review and meta-analysis investigated the association between smoking and ARDS risk in adults. METHODS: The PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science databases were searched for eligible studies published from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2023. We enrolled adult patients exhibiting clinical risk factors for ARDS and smoking condition. Outcomes were quantified using odds ratios (ORs) for binary variables and mean differences (MDs) for continuous variables, with a standard 95% confidence interval (CI). RESULTS: A total of 26 observational studies involving 36,995 patients were included. The meta-analysis revealed a significant association between smoking and an increased risk of ARDS (OR 1.67; 95% CI 1.33-2.08; P < 0.001). Further analysis revealed that the associations between patient-reported smoking history and ARDS occurrence were generally similar to the results of all the studies (OR 1.78; 95% CI 1.38-2.28; P < 0.001). In contrast, patients identified through the detection of tobacco metabolites (cotinine, a metabolite of nicotine, and 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL), a metabolite of tobacco products) showed no significant difference in ARDS risk (OR 1.19; 95% CI 0.69-2.05; P = 0.53). The smoking group was younger than the control group (MD - 7.15; 95% CI - 11.58 to - 2.72; P = 0.002). Subgroup analysis revealed that smoking notably elevated the incidence of ARDS with extrapulmonary etiologies (OR 1.85; 95% CI 1.43-2.38; P < 0.001). Publication bias did not affect the integrity of our conclusions. Sensitivity analysis further reinforced the reliability of our aggregated outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: There is a strong association between smoking and elevated ARDS risk. This emphasizes the need for thorough assessment of patients' smoking status, urging healthcare providers to vigilantly monitor individuals with a history of smoking, especially those with additional extrapulmonary risk factors for ARDS.

Mechanisms underlying morphological and functional changes of cilia in fibroblasts derived from patients bearing ARL3T31A and ARL3T31A/C118F mutations.

ARL3 is essential for cilia development, and mutations in ARL3 are closely associated with ciliopathies. In a previous study, we observed distinct phenotypes of retinal dystrophy in patients with heterozygous ARL3T31A and compound heterozygous ARL3T31A/C118F mutations, indicating that different mutation types may exert diverse effects on their functions. Here, we generated transformed immortal fibroblast cells from patients carrying heterozygous ARL3T31A and compound heterozygous ARL3T31A/C118F mutations, and systematically evaluated their cilia morphology and function, which were further validated in ARPE-19 cells. Results showed that both ARL3T31A and ARL3T31A/C118F mutations led to a decrease in cilium formation. The ARL3T31A/C118F mutations caused significantly elongated cilia and impaired retrograde transport, whereas the ARL3T31A mutation did not induce significant changes in fibroblasts. RNA-sequencing results indicated that compared to ARL3T31A , ARL3T31A/C118F fibroblasts exhibited a higher enrichment of biological processes related to neuron projection development, tissue morphogenesis, and extracellular matrix (ECM) organization, with noticeable alterations in pathways such as ECM-receptor interaction, focal adhesion, and TGF-ß signaling. Similar changes were observed in the proteomic results in ARPE-19 cells. Core regulated genes including IQUB, UNC13D, RAB3IP, and GRIP1 were specifically downregulated in the ARL3T31A/C118F group, and expressions of IQUB, NPM2, and SLC38A4 were further validated. Additionally, IQUB showed a rescuing effect on the overlong cilia observed in ARL3T31A/C118F fibroblasts. Our results not only enhance our understanding of ARL3-related diseases but also provide new insights into the analysis of heterozygous and compound heterozygous mutations in genetics.

Lycopene Alleviates Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Steatohepatitis through Inhibition of the ASK1-JNK Signaling Pathway.

Lycopene has been proven to alleviate nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), but the precise mechanisms are inadequately elucidated. In this study, we found a previously unknown regulatory effect of lycopene on the apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) signaling pathway in both in vivo and in vitro models. Lycopene supplementation (3 and 6 mg/kg/day) exhibited a significant reduction in lipid accumulation, inflammation, and fibrosis of the liver in mice fed with a high-fat/high-cholesterol diet or a methionine-choline-deficient diet. RNA sequencing uncovered that the mitogen-activated protein kinases signaling pathway, which is closely associated with inflammation and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, was significantly downregulated by lycopene. Furthermore, we found lycopene ameliorated ER swelling and decreased the expression levels of ER stress markers (i.e., immunoglobulin heavy chain binding protein, C/EBP homologous protein, and X-box binding protein 1s). Especially, the inositol-requiring enzyme 1α involved in the ASK1 phosphorylation was inhibited by lycopene, resulting in the decline of the subsequent c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling cascade. ASK1 inhibitor DQOP-1 eliminated the lycopene-induced inhibition of the ASK1-JNK pathway in oleic acid and palmitic acid-induced HepG2 cells. Molecular docking further indicated hydrophobic interactions between lycopene and ASK1. Collectively, our research indicates that lycopene can alleviate ER stress and attenuate inflammation cascades and lipid accumulation by inhibiting the ASK1-JNK pathway.

Biosynthesis of eriodictyol in citrus waster by endowing P450BM3 activity of naringenin hydroxylation.

The flavonoid naringenin is abundantly present in pomelo peels, and the unprocessed naringenin in wastes is not friendly for the environment once discarded directly. Fortunately, the hydroxylated product of eriodictyol from naringenin exhibits remarkable antioxidant and anticancer properties. The P450s was suggested promising for the bioconversion of the flavonoids, but less naturally existed P450s show hydroxylation activity to C3' of the naringenin. By well analyzing the catalytic mechanism and the conformations of the naringenin in P450, we proposed that the intermediate Cmpd I ((porphyrin)Fe = O) is more reasonable as key conformation for the hydrolyzation, and the distance between C3'/C5' of naringenin to the O atom of CmpdI determines the hydroxylating activity for the naringenin. Thus, the "flying kite model" that gradually drags the C-H bond of the substrate to the O atom of CmpdI was put forward for rational design. With ab initio design, we successfully endowed the self-sufficient P450-BM3 hydroxylic activity to naringenin and obtained mutant M5-5, with kcat, Km, and kcat/Km values of 230.45 min-1, 310.48 µM, and 0.742 min-1 µM-1, respectively. Furthermore, the mutant M4186 was screened with kcat/Km of 4.28-fold highly improved than the reported M13. The M4186 also exhibited 62.57% yield of eriodictyol, more suitable for the industrial application. This study provided a theoretical guide for the rational design of P450s to the nonnative compounds. KEY POINTS: •The compound I is proposed as the starting point for the rational design of the P450BM3 •"Flying kite model" is proposed based on the distance between O of Cmpd I and C3'/C5' of naringenin •Mutant M15-5 with 1.6-fold of activity than M13 was obtained by ab initio modification.

Corrosion resistance and earth-abundance FeS-based heterojunction catalyst for seawater splitting at industrial grade density.

The strategic progression toward highly efficient transition metal electrocatalytic electrodes is crucial to achieving efficiency and long-term stability in hydrogen production from authentic seawater sources. This work reports the development of a self-supporting, heterogeneous and corrosion-resistant iron sulfur-based catalytic electrode via a streamlined, one-step process involving sulfide etching and electroless plating on an iron foam substrate (IF). This new electrode, named NiS-FeS@IF, involves a nanostructured NiS-FeS catalytic material that combines in situ, resulting in a thin, ultrathin nanospherical layer on the IF. This construction has low overpotentials of merely 322 mV for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and 563 mV for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) with a current density of 500 mA cm-2 in alkaline simulated seawater electrolytes. Importantly, the NiS-FeS@IF electrode enduring more than 500 h at an industrial grade high current density of 1 A cm-2 without noteworthy performance deterioration. The unique and uniformly dispersed morphology of NiS-FeS facilitates intensified interfacial electron transfer, optimizes active site exposure and provides efficient channels for the rapid release and mass transfer of gas bubbles. This work introduces a novel approach for the facile preparation of efficient electrode materials.

A precise swaying map for how promiscuous cellobiose-2-epimerase operate bi-reaction.

Promiscuous enzymes play a crucial role in organism survival and new reaction mining. However, comprehensive mapping of the catalytic and regulatory mechanisms hasn't been well studied due to the characteristic complexity. The cellobiose 2-epimerase from Caldicellulosiruptor saccharolyticus (CsCE) with complex epimerization and isomerization was chosen to comprehensively investigate the promiscuous mechanisms. Here, the catalytic frame of ring-opening, cis-enediol mediated catalysis and ring-closing was firstly determined. To map the full view of promiscuous CE, the structure of CsCE complex with the isomerized product glucopyranosyl-ß1,4-fructose was determined. Combined with computational calculation, the promiscuity was proved a precise cooperation of the double subsites, loop rearrangement, and intermediate swaying. The flexible loop was like a gear, whose structural reshaping regulates the sway of the intermediates between the two subsites of H377-H188 and H377-H247, and thus regulates the catalytic directions. The different protonated states of cis-enediol intermediate catalyzed by H188 were the key point for the catalysis. The promiscuous enzyme tends to utilize all elements at hand to carry out the promiscuous functions.

Co-encapsulation of collagen peptide and astaxanthin in WG/OG/W double emulsions-filled alginate hydrogel beads: Fabrication, characterization and digestion behaviors.

The double emulsions-filled hydrogel beads delivery systems with controlled lipolysis and sustained-release property of co-encapsulated bioactive substances will be highly desired. Herein, the water-in-oil-in-water emulsion with gelled inner water phase and oil phase (WG/OG/W) filled hydrogel beads as a novel co-delivery system were developed with varied concentrations of rice bran wax and W/O emulsions to achieve effectively controlled release of lipolysis and nutraceuticals. Interestingly, the gelation of oil phase triggered by rice bran wax could enhance the storage stability of WG/OG/W emulsions due to the enhanced viscoelastic property. Increasing the mass fractions of W/O emulsions improved the stability of double emulsions due to increased viscosity and decreased particle size. Cryo-SEM observation showed that the double emulsion droplets were scattered in the three-dimensional network of alginate gel beads. Increased the addition of rice bran wax or W/O emulsions, the encapsulation efficiency of collagen peptide and astaxanthin was significantly improved. The in vitro digestion results indicated that increasing the concentrations of rice bran wax and W/O emulsion fractions in WG/OG/W emulsion-filled gel beads could effectively delay the release extent of free fatty acids and encapsulated nutraceuticals. The presence of rice bran wax contributed to increase the bioaccessibility of collagen peptide and astaxanthin.

Function and dynamics of the intrinsically disordered carboxyl terminus of ß2 adrenergic receptor.

Advances in structural biology have provided important mechanistic insights into signaling by the transmembrane core of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs); however, much less is known about intrinsically disordered regions such as the carboxyl terminus (CT), which is highly flexible and not visible in GPCR structures. The ß2 adrenergic receptor's (ß2AR) 71 amino acid CT is a substrate for GPCR kinases and binds ß-arrestins to regulate signaling. Here we show that the ß2AR CT directly inhibits basal and agonist-stimulated signaling in cell lines lacking ß-arrestins. Combining single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), NMR spectroscopy, and molecular dynamics simulations, we reveal that the negatively charged ß2AR-CT serves as an autoinhibitory factor via interacting with the positively charged cytoplasmic surface of the receptor to limit access to G-proteins. The stability of this interaction is influenced by agonists and allosteric modulators, emphasizing that the CT plays important role in allosterically regulating GPCR activation.

Revealing the Sequence Characteristics and Molecular Mechanisms of ACE Inhibitory Peptides by Comprehensive Characterization of 160,000 Tetrapeptides.

Chronic diseases, such as hypertension, cause great harm to human health. Conventional drugs have promising therapeutic effects, but also cause significant side effects. Food-sourced angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptides are an excellent therapeutic alternative to pharmaceuticals, as they have fewer side effects. However, there is no systematic and effective screening method for ACE inhibitory peptides, and the lack of understanding of the sequence characteristics and molecular mechanism of these inhibitory peptides poses a major obstacle to the development of ACE inhibitory peptides. Through systematically calculating the binding effects of 160,000 tetrapeptides with ACE by molecular docking, we found that peptides with Tyr, Phe, His, Arg, and especially Trp were the characteristic amino acids of ACE inhibitory peptides. The tetrapeptides of WWNW, WRQF, WFRV, YYWK, WWDW, and WWTY rank in the top 10 peptides exhibiting significantly high ACE inhibiting behaviors, with IC50 values between 19.98 ± 8.19 µM and 36.76 ± 1.32 µM. Salt bridges, π-π stacking, π-cations, and hydrogen bonds contributed to the high binding characteristics of the inhibitors and ACE. Introducing eight Trp into rabbit skeletal muscle protein (no Trp in wide sequence) endowed the protein with a more than 90% ACE inhibition rate, further suggesting that meat with a high content of Trp could have potential utility in hypertension regulation. This study provides a clear direction for the development and screening of ACE inhibitory peptides.

Pomelo peel derived nanocellulose as Pickering stabilizers: Fabrication of Pickering emulsions and their potential as sustained-release delivery systems for lycopene.

Two kinds of nanocellulose (cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) were synthesized from pomelo peels via a facile approach of TEMPO oxidation and sulfuric acid treatment respectively. The FTIR results illustrated that hemicelluloses and lignin were completely removed from the pomelo peel cellulose substrate. The obtained CNFs and CNCs possessed a uniform morphology and nanoscale particle size. The stability of CNF-based Pickering emulsions was higher than that of emulsions stabilized with CNCs, due to the formation of gel structure induced by the CNFs' longer fibrils. Increased oil fractions enhanced the viscoelasticity of CNF-based Pickering emulsions. The in vitro digestion results suggested that increased oil fractions decreased the lipolysis degree, as a result of the larger droplet size and higher viscoelasticity of emulsion. The release of lycopene showed a trend similar to that of FFA release, suggesting that higher oil fractions were beneficial for controlling lycopene release during gastrointestinal digestion.

Rational Design of a Highly Specific Prolyl Endopeptidase To Activate the Antihypertensive Effect of Peptides.

Enzymatic hydrolysis of food-derived proteins to produce bioactive peptides could activate food functions such as antihypertension. However, the diversity of enzymatic hydrolysis products can reduce bioactive peptides' efficacy. Highly specific proteases can homogenize the hydrolysis products to reduce the production of impotent peptides. In this study, we successfully obtained M. xanthus prolyl endopeptidase mutant Y451M by constraint/free molecular dynamics simulations and binding energy calculations. The specificity of Y451M for proline was increased by 286 % compared to WT, while its activity was almost unchanged. Milk-derived substrates processed with Y451M showed an antihypertensive effect that was 567 % higher than without enzymes. The ability to activate food antihypertension increased 152 % and the use of enzyme by 192 % compared with WT. Specific proteases are thus valuable tools in the processing of complex substrates to obtain bioactive peptides.

Promoting soluble expression of hybrid mussel foot proteins by SUMO-TrxA tags for production of mussel glue.

Mussel foot proteins (Mfps) display application potential with strong adhesion, enabling mussels to adhere firmly to various surfaces. Mytilus galloprovincialis foot protein 3B (Mgfp-3B) exhibits this characteristic remarkably. However, it remains a challenge for further research due to the low soluble expression of heterologous production. In this study, a small ubiquitin-related modifier (SUMO) and thioredoxin A (TrxA), which catalyzed the proper folding of disulfide bridges, were selected to increase the soluble expression of mfps. An additional ribosome binding site was introduced between the molecular chaperones and Mgfp-3B (fp-3) to form a bicistronic translation-coupled expression vector for co-expression. The results revealed that the combination of SUMO-TrxA increased the soluble expression of fp-3 by 18.07 %. Furthermore, the SUMO-TrxA also boosted the soluble expression of hybrid mfps Mgfp-3B-Mfp-1 (fp-3-1) by 11.29 %, Mgfp-3B-Mgfp-3B (fp-3-3) by 19.91 %, and Mgfp-3B-Mgfp-5 (fp-3-5) by 14.03 %. Ultimately, by high cell density cultivation in a 5 L bioreactor, the yields of fp-3, fp-3-3, and fp-3-5 co-expressed with SUMO-TrxA reached 217.75 mg/L, 127.2 mg/L, and 97.28 mg/L, respectively. Consequently, soluble production of mfps holds great potential for the sustainable supply of protein adhesive materials.

Acrylamide-Induced Hepatotoxicity Through Oxidative Stress: Mechanisms and Interventions.

Significance: Acrylamide (AA) widely exists in the environment. Studies have demonstrated that AA has neurotoxicity and potential carcinogenicity in humans, and genotoxicity and severe hepatotoxicity in animals. As the critical metabolism organ, the liver is the primary attacking target of AA. This review summarizes the recent advances in hepatotoxicity mechanism through AA-induced oxidative stress in rodent livers and hepatic cell lines, and this is beneficial to assess the risks of AA exposure and explore effective intervention methods for AA hepatotoxicity. Recent Advances: Accumulating evidence has indicated that AA-induced oxidative stress is responsible for its hepatotoxicity. The changes in homological and biochemical indexes such as activities of hepatic antioxidant enzymes have been elucidated with the occurrence and development of oxidative stress. Also, the molecular mechanisms underlying AA-induced hepatotoxicity through oxidative stress have been mainly explained by apoptosis, inflammatory, and autophagic pathways. Critical Issues: This review is focusing on the molecular mechanism of hepatotoxicity through AA-induced oxidative stress, and this can provide a theoretical basis for the assessment of AA-induced health risk and finding potential intervention targets. Future Directions: Epigenetic modifications such as microRNAs (miRNAs) and modulation of the gut microbiome involved in the AA toxification pathway must be investigated, and they will provide novel insights to unravel the toxification mechanism and intervention strategy for AA hepatotoxicity. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 38, 1122-1137.