v-Src delocalizes Aurora B by suppressing Aurora B kinase activity during monopolar cytokinesis.

c-Src tyrosine kinase plays roles in a wide range of signaling events and its increased activity is frequently observed in a variety of epithelial and non-epithelial cancers. v-Src, an oncogene first identified in the Rous sarcoma virus, is an oncogenic version of c-Src and has constitutively active tyrosine kinase activity. We previously showed that v-Src induces Aurora B delocalization, resulting in cytokinesis failure and binucleated cell formation. In the present study, we explored the mechanism underlying v-Src-induced Aurora B delocalization. Treatment with the Eg5 inhibitor (+)-S-trityl-L-cysteine (STLC) arrested cells in a prometaphase-like state with a monopolar spindle; upon further inhibition of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK1) by RO-3306, cells underwent monopolar cytokinesis with bleb-like protrusions. Aurora B was localized to the protruding furrow region or the polarized plasma membrane 30 min after RO-3306 addition, whereas inducible v-Src expression caused Aurora B delocalization in cells undergoing monopolar cytokinesis. Delocalization was similarly observed in monopolar cytokinesis induced by inhibiting Mps1, instead of CDK1, in the STLC-arrested mitotic cells. Importantly, western blotting analysis and in vitro kinase assay revealed that v-Src decreased the levels of Aurora B autophosphorylation and its kinase activity. Furthermore, like v-Src, treatment with the Aurora B inhibitor ZM447439 also caused Aurora B delocalization at concentrations that partially inhibited Aurora B autophosphorylation. Given that phosphorylation of Aurora B by v-Src was not observed, these results suggest that v-Src causes Aurora B delocalization by indirectly suppressing Aurora B kinase activity.

Role of c-Src in Carcinogenesis and Drug Resistance.

The aberrant transformation of normal cells into cancer cells, known as carcinogenesis, is a complex process involving numerous genetic and molecular alterations in response to innate and environmental stimuli. The Src family kinases (SFK) are key components of signaling pathways implicated in carcinogenesis, with c-Src and its oncogenic counterpart v-Src often playing a significant role. The discovery of c-Src represents a compelling narrative highlighting groundbreaking discoveries and valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying carcinogenesis. Upon oncogenic activation, c-Src activates multiple downstream signaling pathways, including the PI3K-AKT pathway, the Ras-MAPK pathway, the JAK-STAT3 pathway, and the FAK/Paxillin pathway, which are important for cell proliferation, survival, migration, invasion, metastasis, and drug resistance. In this review, we delve into the discovery of c-Src and v-Src, the structure of c-Src, and the molecular mechanisms that activate c-Src. We also focus on the various signaling pathways that c-Src employs to promote oncogenesis and resistance to chemotherapy drugs as well as molecularly targeted agents.

The tyrosine kinase v-Src modifies cytotoxicities of anticancer drugs targeting cell division.

v-Src oncogene causes cell transformation through its strong tyrosine kinase activity. We have revealed that v-Src-mediated cell transformation occurs at a low frequency and it is attributed to mitotic abnormalities-mediated chromosome instability. v-Src directly phosphorylates Tyr-15 of cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (CDK1), thereby causing mitotic slippage and reduction in Eg5 inhibitor cytotoxicity. However, it is not clear whether v-Src modifies cytotoxicities of the other anticancer drugs targeting cell division. In this study, we found that v-Src restores cancer cell viability reduced by various microtubule-targeting agents (MTAs), although v-Src does not alter cytotoxicity of DNA-damaging anticancer drugs. v-Src causes mitotic slippage of MTAs-treated cells, consequently generating proliferating tetraploid cells. We further demonstrate that v-Src also restores cell viability reduced by a polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1) inhibitor. Interestingly, treatment with Aurora kinase inhibitor strongly induces cell death when cells express v-Src. These results suggest that the v-Src modifies cytotoxicities of anticancer drugs targeting cell division. Highly activated Src-induced resistance to MTAs through mitotic slippage might have a risk to enhance the malignancy of cancer cells through the increase in chromosome instability upon chemotherapy using MTAs.

The tumor suppressor LATS2 reduces v-Src-induced membrane blebs in a kinase activity-independent manner.

When cells with excess DNA, such as tetraploid cells, undergo cell division, it can contribute to cellular transformation via asymmetrical chromosome segregation-generated genetic diversity. Cell cycle progression of tetraploid cells is suppressed by large tumor suppressor 2 (LATS2) kinase-induced inhibitory phosphorylation of the transcriptional coactivator Yes-associated protein (YAP). We recently reported that the oncogene v-Src induces tetraploidy and promotes cell cycle progression of tetraploid cells by suppressing LATS2 activity. We explore here the mechanism by which v-Src suppresses LATS2 activity and the role of LATS2 in v-Src-expressing cells. LATS2 was directly phosphorylated by v-Src and the proto-oncogene c-Src, resulting in decreased LATS2 kinase activity. This kinase-deficient LATS2 accumulated in a YAP transcriptional activity-dependent manner, and knockdown of either LATS2 or the LATS2-binding partner moesin-ezrin-radixin-like protein (Merlin) accelerated v-Src-induced membrane bleb formation. Upon v-Src expression, the interaction of Merlin with LATS2 was increased possibly due to a decrease in Merlin phosphorylation at Ser518, the dephosphorylation of which is required for the open conformation of Merlin and interaction with LATS2. LATS2 was colocalized with Merlin at the plasma membrane in a manner that depends on the Merlin-binding region of LATS2. The bleb formation in v-Src-expressing and LATS2-knockdown cells was rescued by the reexpression of wild-type or kinase-dead LATS2 but not the LATS2 mutant lacking the Merlin-binding region. These results suggest that the kinase-deficient LATS2 plays a role with Merlin at the plasma membrane in the maintenance of cortical rigidity in v-Src-expressing cells, which may cause tumor suppression.

The Yeast Hsp70 Cochaperone Ydj1 Regulates Functional Distinction of Ssa Hsp70s in the Hsp90 Chaperoning Pathway.

Heat-shock protein (Hsp) 90 assists in the folding of diverse sets of client proteins including kinases and growth hormone receptors. Hsp70 plays a major role in many Hsp90 functions by interacting and modulating conformation of its substrates before being transferred to Hsp90s for final maturation. Each eukaryote contains multiple members of the Hsp70 family. However, the role of different Hsp70 isoforms in Hsp90 chaperoning actions remains unknown. Using v-Src as an Hsp90 substrate, we examined the role of each of the four yeast cytosolic Ssa Hsp70s in regulating Hsp90 functions. We show that the strain expressing stress-inducible Ssa3 or Ssa4, and the not constitutively expressed Ssa1 or Ssa2, as the sole Ssa Hsp70 isoform reduces v-Src-mediated growth defects. The study shows that although different Hsp70 isoforms interact similarly with Hsp90s, v-Src maturation is less efficient in strains expressing Ssa4 as the sole Hsp70. We further show that the functional distinction between Ssa2 and Ssa4 is regulated by its C-terminal domain. Further studies reveal that Ydj1, which is known to assist substrate transfer to Hsp70s, interacts relatively weakly with Ssa4 compared with Ssa2, which could be the basis for poor maturation of the Hsp90 client in cells expressing stress-inducible Ssa4 as the sole Ssa Hsp70. The study thus reveals a novel role of Ydj1 in determining the functional distinction among Hsp70 isoforms with respect to the Hsp90 chaperoning action.

Whole Genome Resequencing of Arkansas Progressor and Regressor Line Chickens to Identify SNPs Associated with Tumor Regression.

Arkansas Regressor (AR) chickens, unlike Arkansas Progressor (AP) chickens, regress tumors induced by the v-src oncogene. To better understand the genetic factors responsible for this tumor regression property, whole genome resequencing was conducted using Illumina Hi-Seq 2 × 100 bp paired-end read method (San Diego, CA, USA) with AR (confirmed tumor regression property) and AP chickens. Sequence reads were aligned to the chicken reference genome (galgal5) and produced coverage of 11× and 14× in AR and AP, respectively. A total of 7.1 and 7.3 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were present in AR and AP genomes, respectively. Through a series of filtration processes, a total of 12,242 SNPs were identified in AR chickens that were associated with non-synonymous, frameshift, nonsense, no-start and no-stop mutations. Further filtering of SNPs based on read depth ≥ 10, SNP% ≥ 0.75, and non-synonymous mutations identified 63 reliable marker SNPs which were chosen for gene network analysis. The network analysis revealed that the candidate genes identified in AR chickens play roles in networks centered to ubiquitin C (UBC), phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3K), and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) complexes suggesting that the tumor regression property in AR chickens might be associated with ubiquitylation, PI3K, and NF-kB signaling pathways. This study provides an insight into genetic factors that could be responsible for the tumor regression property.

The tyrosine kinase v-Src causes mitotic slippage by phosphorylating an inhibitory tyrosine residue of Cdk1.

The nonreceptor tyrosine kinase v-Src is an oncogene first identified in Rous sarcoma virus. The oncogenic effects of v-Src have been intensively studied; however, its effects on chromosomal integrity are not fully understood. Here, using HeLa S3/v-Src cells having inducible v-Src expression, we found that v-Src causes mitotic slippage in addition to cytokinesis failure, even when the spindle assembly checkpoint is not satisfied because of the presence of microtubule-targeting agents. v-Src's effect on mitotic slippage was also observed in cells after a knockdown of C-terminal Src kinase (Csk), a protein-tyrosine kinase that inhibits Src-family kinases and was partially inhibited by PP2, an Src-family kinase inhibitor. Proteomic analysis and in vitro kinase assay revealed that v-Src phosphorylates cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (Cdk1) at Tyr-15. This phosphorylation attenuated Cdk1 kinase activity, resulting in a decrease in the phosphorylation of Cdk1 substrates. Furthermore, v-Src-induced mitotic slippage reduced the sensitivity of the cells to microtubule-targeting agents, and cells that survived the microtubule-targeting agents exhibited polyploidy. These results suggest that v-Src causes mitotic slippage by attenuating Cdk1 kinase activity via direct phosphorylation of Cdk1 at Tyr-15. On the basis of these findings, we propose a model for v-Src-induced oncogenesis, in which v-Src-promoted mitotic slippage due to Cdk1 phosphorylation generates genetic diversity via abnormal cell division of polyploid cells and also increases the tolerance of cancer cells to microtubule-targeting agents.

Cytokinesis Failure Leading to Chromosome Instability in v-Src-Induced Oncogenesis.

v-Src, an oncogene found in Rous sarcoma virus, is a constitutively active variant of c-Src. Activation of Src is observed frequently in colorectal and breast cancers, and is critical in tumor progression through multiple processes. However, in some experimental conditions, v-Src causes growth suppression and apoptosis. In this review, we highlight recent progress in our understanding of cytokinesis failure and the attenuation of the tetraploidy checkpoint in v-Src-expressing cells. v-Src induces cell cycle changes-such as the accumulation of the 4N cell population-and increases the number of binucleated cells, which is accompanied by an excess number of centrosomes. Time-lapse analysis of v-Src-expressing cells showed that cytokinesis failure is caused by cleavage furrow regression. Microscopic analysis revealed that v-Src induces delocalization of cytokinesis regulators including Aurora B and Mklp1. Tetraploid cell formation is one of the causes of chromosome instability; however, tetraploid cells can be eliminated at the tetraploidy checkpoint. Interestingly, v-Src weakens the tetraploidy checkpoint by inhibiting the nuclear exclusion of the transcription coactivator YAP, which is downstream of the Hippo pathway and its nuclear exclusion is critical in the tetraploidy checkpoint. We also discuss the relationship between v-Src-induced chromosome instability and growth suppression in v-Src-induced oncogenesis.

v-Src-induced nuclear localization of YAP is involved in multipolar spindle formation in tetraploid cells.

The protein-tyrosine kinase, c-Src, is involved in a variety of signaling events, including cell division. We have reported that v-Src, which is a mutant variant of the cellular proto-oncogene, c-Src, causes delocalization of Aurora B kinase, resulting in a furrow regression in cytokinesis and the generation of multinucleated cells. However, the effect of v-Src on mitotic spindle formation is unknown. Here we show that v-Src-expressing HCT116 and NIH3T3 cells undergo abnormal cell division, in which cells separate into more than two cells. Upon v-Src expression, the proportion of multinucleated cells is increased in a time-dependent manner. Flow cytometry analysis revealed that v-Src increases the number of cells having a ≥4N DNA content. Microscopic analysis showed that v-Src induces the formation of multipolar spindles with excess centrosomes. These results suggest that v-Src induces multipolar spindle formation by generating multinucleated cells. Tetraploidy activates the tetraploidy checkpoint, leading to a cell cycle arrest of tetraploid cells at the G1 phase, in which the nuclear exclusion of the transcription co-activator YAP plays a critical role. In multinucleated cells that are induced by cytochalasin B and the Plk1 inhibitor, YAP is excluded from the nucleus. However, v-Src prevents this nuclear exclusion of YAP through a decrease in the phosphorylation of YAP at Ser127 in multinucleated cells. Furthermore, v-Src decreases the expression level of p53, which also plays a critical role in the cell cycle arrest of tetraploid cells. These results suggest that v-Src promotes abnormal spindle formation in at least two ways: generation of multinucleated cells and a weakening of the tetraploidy checkpoint.

JunD/AP-1 Antagonizes the Induction of DAPK1 To Promote the Survival of v-Src-Transformed Cells.

The increase in AP-1 activity is a hallmark of cell transformation by tyrosine kinases. Previously, we reported that blocking AP-1 using the c-Jun dominant negative mutant TAM67 induced senescence, adipogenesis, or apoptosis in v-Src-transformed chicken embryo fibroblasts (CEFs) whereas inhibition of JunD by short hairpin RNA (shRNA) specifically induced apoptosis. To investigate the role of AP-1 in Src-mediated transformation, we undertook a gene profiling study to characterize the transcriptomes of v-Src-transformed CEFs expressing either TAM67 or the JunD shRNA. Our study revealed a cluster of 18 probe sets upregulated exclusively in response to AP-1/JunD impairment and v-Src transformation. Four of these probe sets correspond to genes involved in the interferon pathway. One gene in particular, death-associated protein kinase 1 (DAPK1), is a C/EBPß-regulated mediator of apoptosis in gamma interferon (IFN-γ)-induced cell death. Here, we show that inhibition of DAPK1 abrogates cell death in v-Src-transformed cells expressing the JunD shRNA. Chromatin immunoprecipitation data indicated that C/EBPß was recruited to the DAPK1 promoter while the expression of a dominant negative mutant of C/EBPß abrogated the induction of DAPK1 in response to the inhibition of AP-1. In contrast, as determined by chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays, JunD was not detected on the DAPK1 promoter under any conditions, suggesting that JunD promotes survival by indirectly antagonizing the expression of DAPK1 in v-Src transformed cells. IMPORTANCE: Transformation by the v-Src oncoprotein causes extensive changes in gene expression in primary cells such as chicken embryo fibroblasts. These changes, determining the properties of transformed cells, are controlled in part at the transcriptional level. Much attention has been devoted to transcription factors such as AP-1 and NF-κB and the control of genes associated with a more aggressive phenotype. In this report, we describe a novel mechanism of action determined by the JunD component of AP-1, a factor enhancing cell survival in v-Src-transformed cells. We show that the loss of JunD results in the aberrant activation of a genetic program leading to cell death. This program requires the activation of the tumor suppressor death-associated protein kinase 1 (DAPK1). Since DAPK1 is phosphorylated and inhibited by v-Src, these results highlight the importance of this kinase and the multiple mechanisms controlled by v-Src to antagonize the tumor suppressor function of DAPK1.

v-Src Causes Chromosome Bridges in a Caffeine-Sensitive Manner by Generating DNA Damage.

An increase in Src activity is commonly observed in epithelial cancers. Aberrant activation of the kinase activity is associated with malignant progression. However, the mechanisms that underlie the Src-induced malignant progression of cancer are not completely understood. We show here that v-Src, an oncogene that was first identified from a Rous sarcoma virus and a mutant variant of c-Src, leads to an increase in the number of anaphase and telophase cells having chromosome bridges. v-Src increases the number of γH2AX foci, and this increase is inhibited by treatment with PP2, a Src kinase inhibitor. v-Src induces the phosphorylation of KAP1 at Ser824, Chk2 at Thr68, and Chk1 at Ser345, suggesting the activation of the ATM/ATR pathway. Caffeine decreases the number of cells having chromosome bridges at a concentration incapable of inhibiting Chk1 phosphorylation at Ser345. These results suggest that v-Src induces chromosome bridges via generation of DNA damage and the subsequent DNA damage response, possibly by homologous recombination. A chromosome bridge gives rise to the accumulation of DNA damage directly through chromosome breakage and indirectly through cytokinesis failure-induced multinucleation. We propose that v-Src-induced chromosome bridge formation is one of the causes of the v-Src-induced malignant progression of cancer cells.

Karyotype analysis of the acute fibrosarcoma from chickens infected with subgroup J avian leukosis virus associated with v-src oncogene.

To understand the cytogenetic characteristics of acute fibrosarcoma in chickens infected with the subgroup J avian leukosis virus associated with the v-src oncogene, we performed a karyotype analysis of fibrosarcoma cell cultures. Twenty-nine of 50 qualified cell culture spreads demonstrated polyploidy of some macrochromosomes, 21 of which were trisomic for chromosome 7, and others were trisomic for chromosomes 3, 4, 5 (sex chromosome w), and 10. In addition, one of them was trisomic for both chromosome 7 and the sex chromosome 5 (w). In contrast, no aneuploidy was found for 10 macrochromosomes of 12 spreads of normal chicken embryo fibroblast cells, although aneuploidy for some microchromosomes was demonstrated in five of the 12 spreads. The cytogenetic mosaicism or polymorphism of the aneuploidy in the acute fibrosarcoma described in this study suggests that the analysed cells are polyclonal.

v-Src inhibits the interaction between Rad17 and Rad9 and induces replication fork collapse.

ATR-dependent DNA damage checkpoint is crucial to maintain genomic stability. Recently, we showed that Src family kinases suppress ATR-dependent checkpoint signaling in termination of DNA damage checkpoint. However, the precise molecular mechanism is unclear. Therefore, we examined the role of oncogenic v-Src on ATR-Chk1 signaling. We show that v-Src suppresses thymidine-induced Chk1 phosphorylation and induces replication fork collapse. v-Src inhibits interaction between Rad17 and Rad9 in chromatin fraction. By contrast, v-Src does not inhibit RPA32 phosphorylation, ATR autophosphorylation, or TopBP1-Rad9 interaction. These data suggest that v-Src attenuates ATR-Chk1 signaling through the inhibition of Rad17-Rad9 interaction.

TC-PTP directly interacts with connexin43 to regulate gap junction intercellular communication.

Protein kinases have long been reported to regulate connexins; however, little is known about the involvement of phosphatases in the modulation of intercellular communication through gap junctions and the subsequent downstream effects on cellular processes. Here, we identify an interaction between the T-cell protein tyrosine phosphatase (TC-PTP, officially known as PTPN2) and the carboxyl terminus of connexin43 (Cx43, officially known as GJA1). Two cell lines, normal rat kidney (NRK) cells endogenously expressing Cx43 and an NRK-derived cell line expressing v-Src with temperature-sensitive activity, were used to demonstrate that EGF and v-Src stimulation, respectively, induced TC-PTP to colocalize with Cx43 at the plasma membrane. Cell biology experiments using phospho-specific antibodies and biophysical assays demonstrated that the interaction is direct and that TC-PTP dephosphorylates Cx43 residues Y247 and Y265, but does not affect v-Src. Transfection of TC-PTP also indirectly led to the dephosphorylation of Cx43 S368, by inactivating PKCα and PKCδ, with no effect on the phosphorylation of S279 and S282 (MAPK-dependent phosphorylation sites). Dephosphorylation maintained Cx43 gap junctions at the plaque and partially reversed the channel closure caused by v-Src-mediated phosphorylation of Cx43. Understanding dephosphorylation, along with the well-documented roles of Cx43 phosphorylation, might eventually lead to methods to modulate the regulation of gap junction channels, with potential benefits for human health.

STP-A11, an oncoprotein of Herpesvirus saimiri augments both NF-kappaB and AP-1 transcription activity through TRAF6

Herpesvirus saimiri (HVS), a member of the gamma-herpesvirus family, encodes an oncoprotein called Saimiri Transforming Protein (STP) which is required for lymphoma induction in non-human primates. However, a detailed mechanism of STP-A11-induced oncogenesis has not been revealed yet. We first report that STP-A11 oncoprotein interacts with TNF-alpha receptor-associated factor (TRAF) 6 in vivo and in vitro. Mutagenesis analysis of the TRAF6-binding motif 10PQENDE15 in STP-A11 reveals that Glu (E)12 residue is critical for binding to TRAF6 and NF-kappaB activation. Interestingly, co-expression of E12A mutant, lack of TRAF6 binding, with cellular Src (Src) results in decreased transcriptional activity of Stat3 and AP-1, a novel target of STP-A11 compared to that of wild type. Furthermore, the presence of STP-A11 enhances the association of TRAF6 with Src and induces the translocation of both TRAF6 and Src to a nonionic detergent-insoluble fraction. Taken together, these studies suggest that STP-A11 oncoprotein up-regulates both NF-kappaB and AP-1 transcription activity through TRAF6, which would ultimately contribute cellular transformation.

Interaction between chicken protein tyrosine phosphatase 1 (CPTP1)-like rat protein phosphatase 1 (PTP1) and p60v-src in v-src-transformed Rat-1 fibroblasts

CPTP1 is a nontransmembrane chicken protein tyrosine phosphatase having 92% sequence homology to the corresponding 321 amino acids of human protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (HPTP1B). Using anti-CPTP1 antibody, we identified CPTP1-like rat PTP1 of 51 kappa Da in Rat-1 and v-src-transformed Rat-1 fibroblasts. Here we show that CPTP1-like rat PTP1 binds to p60v-src in vivo and CPTP1 also can associate with p60v-src in cell lysate of v-src- transformed Rat-1 fibroblasts. Interaction between HPTP1B-type PTPs, CPTP1-like rat PTP1 and CPTP1, and p60v-src was reduced by vanadate treatment for 13 h due to down regulation of the protein level of p60v-src in vivo. Interestingly, CPTP1-like rat PTP1 was coimmunoprecipitated with a 70-kappa Da protein which has a possibility to be tyrosine- phosphorylated by p60v-src in v-src-transformed Rat- 1 fibroblasts. These results suggest that HPTP1B- type PTPs may play an important role in p60src dependent signal pathway in eucaryotic cells.