Attention, working memory, and inhibitory control in aging: Comparing amateur singers, instrumentalists, and active controls.

Despite the ubiquity of musical activities, little is known about the specificity of their association with executive functions. In this cross-sectional study, we examined this relationship as a function of age. Our main hypotheses were that executive functions would decline in older age, that this relationship would be reduced in singers and instrumentalists compared to nonmusician active controls, and that the amount of musical experience would be more strongly associated with executive functions compared to the specific type of activity. A sample of 122 cognitively healthy adults aged 20-88 years was recruited, consisting of 39 amateur singers, 43 amateur instrumentalists, and 40 nonmusician controls. Tests of auditory processing speed, auditory selective attention, auditory and visual inhibitory control, and auditory working memory were administered. The results confirm a negative relationship between age and executive functions. While musicians' advantages were found in selective attention, inhibitory control, and auditory working memory, these advantages were specific rather than global. Furthermore, most of these advantages were independent of age and experience. Finally, there were only limited differences between instrumentalists and singers, suggesting that the relationship between music-making activities and executive functions may be, at least in part, general as opposed to activity-specific.

Executive functions involved in thought suppression: An attempt to integrate research in two paradigms.

There are two main thought suppression research paradigms: the White Bear and Think/No-Think paradigms. In Think/No-Think research, thought suppression is effective and is considered to be mediated by prepotent response inhibition. Conversely, in White Bear studies, thought suppression is counterproductive and appears to engage resistance to proactive interference. However, findings regarding the involvement of these executive functions in each task are mixed. In the current study, two thought suppression procedures were compared. Using Friedman and Miyake's inhibitory functions model (2004) it was investigated whether the differences between thought suppression tasks can be explained by involvement of different executive functions. The results showed that the suppression phases of both procedures were correlated, but the outcomes of suppression were unrelated. There was no evidence supporting the involvement of the examined executive functions in either thought suppression task. Commonalities and discrepancies of the two tasks are discussed along with their external validity.

The cumulative impact of clinical risk on brain networks and associations with executive function impairments in adolescents with congenital heart disease.

Patients with congenital heart disease (CHD) demonstrate altered structural brain network connectivity. However, there is large variability between reported results and little information is available to identify those patients at highest risk for brain alterations. Thus, we aimed to investigate if network connectivity measures were associated with the individual patient's cumulative load of clinical risk factors and with family-environmental factors in a cohort of adolescents with CHD. Further, we investigated associations with executive function impairments. In 53 adolescents with CHD who underwent open-heart surgery during infancy, and 75 healthy controls, diffusion magnetic resonance imaging and neuropsychological assessment was conducted at a mean age of 13.2 ± 1.3 years. Structural connectomes were constructed using constrained spherical deconvolution tractography. Graph theory and network-based statistics were applied to investigate network connectivity measures. A cumulative clinical risk (CCR) score was built by summing up binary risk factors (neonatal, cardiac, neurologic) based on clinically relevant thresholds. The role of family-environmental factors (parental education, parental mental health, and family function) was investigated. An age-adjusted executive function summary score was built from nine neuropsychological tests. While network integration and segregation were preserved in adolescents with CHD, they showed lower edge strength in a dense subnetwork. A higher CCR score was associated with lower network segregation, edge strength, and executive function performance. Edge strength was particularly reduced in a subnetwork including inter-frontal and fronto-parietal-thalamic connections. There was no association with family-environmental factors. Poorer executive functioning was associated with lower network integration and segregation. We demonstrated evidence for alterations of network connectivity strength in adolescents with CHD - particularly in those patients who face a cumulative exposure to multiple clinical risk factors over time. Quantifying the cumulative load of risk early in life may help to better predict trajectories of brain development in order to identify and support the most vulnerable patients as early as possible.

A new neuropsychological tool for simultaneous reading and executive functions assessment: initial psychometric properties.

Introduction: The development of reading and complex executive functions is fundamental for achieving social, academic, and professional success. So far, there is no single neuropsychological instrument that comprehensively assesses the domains of inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory, and reading comprehension. To assess executive functions related to reading, the "Assessment of Reading and Executive Functions" (AREF) was developed. In this study, we show initial evidence of validity and reliability for four subtests - Graphophonological-Semantic Flexibility, Inhibitory Control, Flexibility, and Working Memory. Methods: A total of 93 students from 4th to 9th grade, aged 8-14, in public (n = 61) and private (n = 32) schools were evaluated. Tasks from the AREF instrument, as well as measures of reading comprehension, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory, and intelligence, were administered. Correlations between AREF scores and the other measures were performed to assess external construct validity. Performance differences between school groups on AREF subtests were analyzed using ANOVA, t-test, and Mann-Whitney tests, and the internal consistency of the instrument's tasks was evaluated using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. Results: The scores of the AREF subtests demonstrated significant positive correlations with reading measures (ranging from 0.339 to 0.367) and executive functions (ranging from 0.209 to 0.396). Significant differences were found in the performance of some AREF tasks when comparing individuals from public and private schools, as well as between 4th and 5th graders compared to students in higher grades. The internal consistency of the tasks was low for Graphophonological-Semantic Flexibility (Cronbach's α = 0.566), moderate for Inhibitory Control and Flexibility (Cronbach's α = 0.768), and high for Working Memory (Cronbach's α = 0.881). Discussion: The results provide initial evidence of construct validity and reliability for the AREF subtests. It is expected that this new neuropsychological test will contribute to the assessment of reading skills and executive functions, assisting in guiding clinical and educational interventions for individuals with and without neurodevelopmental disorders.

Inhibitory control and working memory predict rhythm production abilities in patients with neurocognitive deficits.

Deficits in rhythm perception and production have been reported in a variety of psychiatric, neurodevelopmental and neurologic disorders. Since correlations between rhythmic abilities and cognitive functions have been demonstrated in neurotypical individuals, we here investigate whether and how rhythmic abilities are associated with cognitive functions in 35 participants with neurocognitive deficits due to acquired brain lesions. We systematically assessed a diverse set of rhythm perception and production abilities including time and beat perception and finger-tapping tasks. Neuropsychological tests were applied to assess separable cognitive functions. Using multiple regression analyses we show that lower variability in aligning movements to a pacing sequence was predicted by better inhibitory control and better working memory performance. Working memory performance also predicted lower variability of rhythmic movements in the absence of an external pacing sequence and better anticipatory timing to sequences with gradual tempo changes. Importantly, these predictors remained significant for all regression models when controlling for other cognitive variables (i.e., cognitive flexibility, information processing speed, and verbal learning ability) and potential confounders (i.e., age, symptom strength of depression, manual dexterity, duration of illness, severity of cognitive impairment, and musical experience). Thus, all rhythm production abilities were significantly predicted by measures of executive functions. In contrast, rhythm perception abilities (time perception / beat perception) were not predicted by executive functions in this study. Our results, enhancing the understanding of cognitive underpinnings of rhythmic abilities in individuals with neurocognitive deficits, may be a first mandatory step to further potential therapeutic implications of rhythm-based interventions in neuropsychological rehabilitation.

Increasing mind wandering with accelerated intermittent theta burst stimulation over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.

Mind wandering (MW) is the intentional or unintentional experience of attending to internal task-unrelated thoughts while being occupied with an external task. Even though maintaining task focus is assumed to require executive functions (EF), it is not clear how and to what extent MW and EF interact. Research has found that activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is associated with EF and MW. To understand the causal role of the DLPFC in relation to MW and EF, researchers have turned to non-invasive brain stimulation. Thus far, most studies have used transcranial direct current stimulation, but the results have been inconclusive. To further elucidate the relationship between the DLPFC, EF and MW, we conducted a pre-registered, sham-controlled, triple-blinded within-subject experiment by combining intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS) interleaved with a recently developed MW-EF task. In contrast to our expectations, participants reported significantly more MW following real iTBS as compared to sham stimulation. However, at the same time, psychomotor precision and EF improved, indicating that participants were able to engage in resource-intensive MW while simultaneously performing well on the task. We argue that iTBS enhanced the underlying executive resources that could be used to increase both MW and task performance in line with the resource-control view of MW. This finding opens exciting avenues for studying the complex interplay between MW and EF and provides empirical support for the utility of iTBS in improving executive performance during a demanding cognitive task.

Improvements in executive functions by domain-specific cognitive training in youth elite soccer players.

This study examined the impact of sport-specific cognitive training (CT) on executive functions (EFs) in youth soccer players. Thirty-one athletes (13-15 years) participated, 13 in the intervention group (IG) and 18 in the control group (CG). The IG underwent an 8-week soccer-focused CT program, while the CG maintained regular training. The assessments included working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility tasks. The results revealed no significant improvements in EFs in the IG compared to those in the CG. Both groups showed enhanced cognitive flexibility, possibly due to general cognitive development or learning effects. The study suggested that an 8-week sport-specific CT may not enhance EFs in young soccer players, potentially due to a ceiling effect in highly skilled athletes. These findings should be considered when designing cognitive training programs for athletes, and future research could explore the optimal duration of such programs.

Profiles of self-regulation and their association with behavior problems among sexually abused children.

This study aimed to delineate profiles of self-regulation among sexually abused children and their association with behavior problems using a person-centered approach. A sample of 223 children aged six to 12, their parents, and teachers were recruited in specialized intervention centers. Latent profile analysis revealed four profiles: (1) Dysregulated, (2) Inhibited, (3) Flexibly Regulated, and (4) Parent Perceived Self-Regulation. Children from the Flexibly Regulated profile showed relatively low behavior problems, and those from the Dysregulated profile were characterized by high behavior problems. Children from the Parent Perceived Self-Regulation profile showed overall good adaptation, although teachers reported higher behavior problems than parents. Children from the Inhibited profile, characterized by the highest level of inhibition but low parent-rated emotion regulation competencies and executive functions, showed the highest level of internalizing behavior problems, indicating that high inhibition does not necessarily translate to better adaptation. Results also show a moderation effect of sex. Being assigned to the Inhibited profile was associated with decreased externalizing behaviors in boys and increased internalizing behaviors in girls. This study underscores the complexity of self-regulation in sexually abused children and supports the need to adopt a multi-method and multi-informant approach when assessing these children.

Time-course effects of exercise intervention on executive function in adolescents with obesity.

Objective: This study was to investigate the developmental characteristics of executive function (EF) in obese adolescents and the time-course effects of a 14-week exercise intervention combining aerobic exercise and resistance training on EF in this population. Methods: The experimental group of 28 obese junior high school students participated in the exercise intervention combining aerobic exercise and resistance training, while the control group of 24 healthy weight junior high school students engaged in the regular recess exercise. EF, including inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, was assessed 1 week prior to the exercise intervention and at 12 and 14 weeks post-intervention. Changes in EF sub-functions in both groups at different time points during the exercise intervention were analyzed. Results: The findings revealed that obese junior high school students exhibited lower levels of inhibition (p = 0.003, Cohen's d = 0.848) and cognitive flexibility (p = 0.013, Cohen's d = 0.706) compared to their healthy weight peers. The exercise intervention combining aerobic exercise and resistance training led to significant improvements in EF among obese junior high school students, with inhibition (p < 0.01, Cohen's d = 0.713; p = 0.003, Cohen's d = 0.683) and cognitive flexibility (p = 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.797; p < 0.01, Cohen's d = 0.890) showing significant improvement at 12 and 14 weeks post-intervention, and working memory demonstrating significant improvement at 14 weeks (p = 0.004, Cohen's d = 0.710). No significant differences were observed in EF over time in healthy weight junior high school students. Conclusion: Obese adolescents had impaired EF, as evidenced by low levels of the inhibition and cognitive flexibility compared to healthy weight adolescents. The exercise intervention combining aerobic exercise and resistance training had a positive effect on EF of obese adolescents. The time-course effects of the intervention on improvements in inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility varied with intervention duration in obese adolescents, with significant changes in inhibition and cognitive flexibility observed at 12 weeks and significant changes in working memory at 14 weeks.

Neurodivergent students. A continuum of skills with an emphasis on creativity and executive functions.

This study analyses Executive Functions (EF) and Creativity among neurodivergent students -including students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Dyslexia, Intellectual Disability (ID), Giftedness-, and a group with Neurotypical development. A sample of 181 secondary school students participated in the study. Creativity was assessed by using the PIC-J test, focusing on verbal and figural components of divergent thinking, while EF were evaluated through Nesplora Ice-Cream, a virtual reality tool assessing flexibility, working memory, and inhibition. Results showed statistically significant differences in Verbal Creativity, especially in Originality: students with ADHD outperformed their Neurotypical peers, while those with ID showed the lowest scores. Although no statistically significant differences emerged in Figural Creativity, students with ADHD showed the lowest scores in Elaboration or Figural details, whereas those with Dyslexia exhibited high levels of Figural Originality, similar to their Neurotypical peers. Concerning EF, students with ID had the highest scores in Interference and Perseveration, indicating poorer Flexibility. In contrast, Gifted students performed better than the other groups in Working Memory, while students with ADHD did not exhibit special difficulties in EF. These findings emphasize the importance of personalized interventions for Neurodivergent students, that recognize and capitalize on their unique strengths while addressing specific challenges.

Bridging the Connection between Fluency in Reading and Arithmetic.

This study examines the contribution of early executive functions (EFs) in the association between fluency in reading and arithmetic. Kindergarten children (N = 1185) were assessed on executive functions skills and on reading and arithmetic fluency in Grade 1 and Grade 3. The analysis revealed that beyond the connection within each domain there is a unidirectional effect between fluency measures, with Grade 1 reading fluency significantly influencing the development of arithmetic fluency in Grade 3. Furthermore, the findings indicate that kindergarten EFs significantly contribute to arithmetic fluency at both time points and to reading fluency in the first grade. Early EF skills also emerged as significant contributors to the associations between fluency performance in reading and arithmetic, suggesting that the influence of EFs extends beyond individual academic domains. These findings have implications for understanding the cognitive mechanisms that underlie the relations between these academic skills.

Impact of VR-Based Cognitive Training on Working Memory and Inhibitory Control in IDD Young Adults.

BACKGROUND: Young people with intellectual developmental disabilities have a persistent delay in the development of executive functions. Virtual reality (VR) is increasingly being used as a cognitive intervention tool, with significant effectiveness demonstrated in different types of populations. METHODS: This pilot study aims to investigate the impact of a cognitive training program utilizing VR on young adults diagnosed with intellectual developmental disabilities (IDDs). The participants (N = 15) served as their own control group and were assessed three times: weeks 0, 8, and 16, with a rest period (0-8 weeks) and an intervention period (8-16 weeks). The assessments included measures of cognitive function provided by E-Prime® (Version 3). RESULTS: Overall, an improvement in working memory and inhibitory control was found after the intervention, but not in sustained attention. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that VR-based cognitive training holds promise as an effective intervention for enhancing cognitive abilities in young adults with intellectual developmental disabilities. This study provides a foundation for future investigations into VR's role in cognitive rehabilitation and its potential to support daily living skills and overall quality of life for individuals with IDDs. Further research is needed to explore the long-term effects and broader applicability of VR interventions.

Executive functions and theory of mind associations in middle childhood: Does social interaction act as a mediator?

This study explored the interplay of executive functions (EFs), social interactions, and theory of mind (ToM) in middle childhood. The first aim was to examine how specific EFs-shifting, inhibition, and working memory (WM)-predict social-perceptual and social-cognitive ToM. The second aim was to explore the potential mediating role of social interactions in the EF-ToM relationship. A total of 98 children aged 8 to 11 years completed three computerized EF tasks (task switching, flanker, and running span) and two ToM tasks (Strange Stories and Reading the Mind in the Eyes). The quality and quantity of social interactions were self-reported by using questionnaires. First, multiple regression analyses with age-adjusted scores examined how specific EFs predict ToM scores. The regression model was significant for social-cognitive ToM, but not for social-perceptual ToM. WM accuracy was the only significant, positive predictor for performance on the Strange Stories task. Second, mediation analyses assessed whether social interactions mediate this EF-ToM relationship. There were no significant mediation effects of the quality and quantity of social interactions on the relationship between WM and social-cognitive ToM. In conclusion, EFs play a significant role in explaining social-cognitive ToM variability in middle childhood. WM is relevant for understanding others' mental states, in contrast to shifting and inhibition that lacked predictive value. The results also suggest different cognitive processes associated with social-perceptual versus social-cognitive ToM in this developmental stage.

Immediate and delayed effects of fantastical content on children's executive functions and mental transformation.

Watching fantastical content has been shown to negatively affect young children's executive function (EF) skills. No study has investigated how long these negative effects persist and whether they extend to other cognitive skills. The current experimental study aimed to (1) detect how long fantastical content affects children's EF performance and (2) examine whether watching fantastical content negatively affects children's other (non-EF) cognitive task performance, namely mental transformation. A total of 120 5- and 6-year-old children (M = 66 months, SD = 5.52) were randomly assigned to one of the four following conditions: (a) immediate testing after watching an 8-min non-fantastical cartoon, (b) immediate testing after watching an 8-min fantastical cartoon, (c) 10-min delayed testing after watching a fantastical cartoon, and (d) immediate testing after an 8-min free play (control condition). After exposure to each condition, children were tested on EF and mental transformation measures. Results showed that children watching a fantastical cartoon performed worse on working memory and inhibitory control tasks than children watching a non-fantastical cartoon or playing. However, the 10-min delay between the watching and testing sessions eliminated the negative impact observed on inhibitory control. Groups did not differ on cognitive flexibility and mental transformation. As in previous studies, watching fantastical content negatively affected children's EFs, but this negative impact disappeared in a few minutes and seems unique to EFs. These results suggest that fantastical content may temporarily affect attentional and information processing systems related to EFs.

Inhibitory control and academic achievement - a study of the relationship between Stroop Effect and university students' academic performance.

While previous research has identified executive functions as predictors of academic performance in school children, similar studies conducted among adults show mixed results. One of the reasons given for executive functions having a limited effect on academic achievements in adulthood is that they are usually fully developed by that time. Since these executive functions are at their peak at that age, the individual differences in these as well as their influence on academic performance in adults are harder to trace. The paper describes a study conducted among 107 university students the goal of which was to find out whether there is any relationship between the adult students' inhibitory control values measured with the Stroop Test and their academic achievements. Although the results indicate a weak correlation between the Stroop Effect and the students' academic performance of low statistical significance, which seems to confirm the outcomes of the previous studies focusing on adults, the study reveals an unexpected statistically significant correlation between the students' grade averages and the number of their incorrect color identifications. This phenomenon appears to be worth pursuing in future research since it suggests the existence of another, relatively quickly measurable, variable possibly reflecting other predictors of academic performance in adults such as a degree of their manifested conscientiousness, their ability to concentrate on an assigned, relatively short, one-off task and their attitude to fulfilling this task. The Stroop Test, despite not being originally designed for this purpose, might thus be used as a simple tool suitable for providing information about these variables via the subject's number of color identification errors. Such information can subsequently inform the activities that educators may include in their curricula to foster conscientiousness and concentration in the students lacking these.

A Virtual Reality Platform for Evaluating Deficits in Executive Functions in Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children-Relation to Daily Function and to Quality of Life.

Background: Childhood hearing loss is a common chronic condition that may have a broad impact on children's communication and motor and cognitive development, resulting in functional challenges and decreased quality of life (QoL). Objectives: This pilot study aimed to compare executive functions (EFs) as expressed in daily life and QoL between deaf and hard-of-hearing (D/HH) children and children with typical hearing. Furthermore, we examined the relationship between EFs and QoL in D/HH children. Methods: The participants were 76 children aged 7-11 yr: 38 D/HH and 38 with typical hearing. Parents completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) and Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL), while the child performed a shopping task in the virtual action planning supermarket (VAP-S) to reflect the use of EFs in daily activity. Results: D/HH children showed significantly poorer EFs (as measured by BRIEF and VAP-S) and reduced QoL. Difficulties in EFs were correlated with lower QoL. BRIEF scores were significant predictors of QoL domains. Conclusions: Difficulties in EFs may characterize children with D/HH and reduce their QoL. Therefore, EFs should be screened and treated. VAP-S and BRIEF are feasible tools for evaluating EFs that reflect children's challenges due to EF difficulties in real-life contexts.

Effects of different exercise interventions on executive function in children with autism spectrum disorder: a network meta-analysis.

Background: A large body of research has identified the positive effects of physical activity on children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). However, the specific benefits of different types of sports on executive functioning in children with ASD remain unclear. The aim of this study was to further analyze the effects of different sports on executive functioning in children with ASD using reticulated meta-analysis and to establish their effectiveness ranking. Methods: This study conducted a comprehensive online search in Web of Science, PubMed, Cochrane, Embase, and CNKI databases. It included randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies, and synthesized the data using a Bayesian framework. Results: Several relevant studies were included. The results showed that physical activity significantly improved all three dimensions of executive functioning (inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory) in children with ASD. The improvement in cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control both reached a medium effect size. However, the improvement in inhibitory control was better than that in cognitive flexibility, while the improvement in working memory did not reach the level of a medium effect. Mini Basketball was effective in improving inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility, but not working memory. Ping Pong was more effective in cognitive flexibility and working memory, but weaker in inhibitory control. Fixed Bicycle was less effective in all three dimensions. Among other interventions, Learning Bicycles, Animal-assisted therapy, and Exergaming performed better in cognitive flexibility. SPARK, Neiyang Gong, and Martial Arts were also effective in improving inhibitory control. However, SPARK and Fixed Bicycle were not significant in improving working memory. Conclusion: Physical activity as an intervention can significantly improve the executive function of children with ASD. The intervention effects of different sports on different dimensions of executive function vary. Mini Basketball was outstanding in improving inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility. Ping Pong was effective in improving cognitive flexibility and working memory. Fixed Bicycle was not effective in any dimension.

Comparison of executive functions in people with high and low resilience.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of the present study was to compare executive functions in people with high and low resilience. METHODS: Based on the results of a structured clinical interview and Connor- Davidson resilience Scale (CD-RISC), a total of 140 adults were assigned to high resilience (n = 70) and low resilience (n = 70) groups. Working memory, inhibition and cognitive flexibility were assessed by N-Back, Go/No-Go and Wisconsin Card Sorting task, respectively. RESULT: The results showed that individuals with high resilience compared to individuals with low resilience scored significantly higher on inhibition and cognitive flexibility, but there were no significant differences on working memory. CONCLUSION: The current findings suggest a role of high-level cognitive processes in resilience, which in turn may contribute to mental health. Also, the results of this research may be important in the design of therapeutic interventions based on executive functions.