Aspergillus fumigatus binding IgA and IgG1 are increased in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of horses with neutrophilic asthma.

Introduction: Equine asthma (EA) is a common lower airway disease in horses, but whether its pathogenesis is allergic is ambiguous. Extrinsic stimuli like hay dust induce acute exacerbation of clinical signs and sustained local neutrophilic inflammation in susceptible horses. Aspergillus fumigatus is an EA stimulus, but it is unclear if it merely acts as an IgE-provoking allergen. We aimed to comprehensively analyze immunoglobulin (Ig) isotypes in EA, elucidating their binding to different A. fumigatus antigens, and their quantities systemically in serum and locally in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). Methods: Serum and BALF from healthy horses (HE, n = 18) and horses with mild-moderate asthma (MEA, n = 20) or severe asthma (SEA, n = 24) were compared. Ig isotype (IgG1, IgG3/5, IgG4/7, IgG6, IgA, and IgE) binding to nine antigens (A. fumigatus lysate, and recombinant Asp f 1, Asp f 7, Asp f 8, dipeptidyl-peptidase 5, class II aldolase/adducin domain protein, glucoamylase, beta-hexosaminidase, and peptide hydrolase) was compared by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Total Ig isotype contents were determined by bead-based assays. Results: MEA and SEA differed from HE but hardly from each other. Compared to HE, asthmatic horses showed increased anti-A. fumigatus binding of IgG (BALF and serum) and IgA (BALF). Serum and BALF IgE binding and total IgE contents were similar between HE and EA. Single antigens, as well as A. fumigatus lysate, yielded similar Ig binding patterns. Serum and BALF IgG1 binding to all antigens was increased in SEA and to several antigens in MEA. Serum IgG4/7 binding to two antigens was increased in SEA. BALF IgA binding to all antigens was increased in SEA and MEA. Total BALF IgG1 and IgG4/7 contents were increased in SEA, and serum IgG4/7 content was increased in MEA compared to HE. Yet, total isotype contents differentiated EA and HE less clearly than antigen-binding Ig. Discussion: A. fumigatus immunogenicity was confirmed without identification of single dominant antigens here. A. fumigatus provoked elevated BALF IgG1 and IgA binding, and these isotypes appear relevant for neutrophilic EA, which does not support allergy. BALF Ig isotype differentiation beyond IgE is crucial for a comprehensive analysis of immune responses to fungi in EA pathogenesis.

Exploratory Research for New Diagnostic Markers of Mucormycosis.

Mucormycosis is a fungal infectious disease caused by Rhizopus oryzae and other members of the order Mucorales, and it is known as one of the most lethal fungal infections. Early diagnosis of mucormycosis improves prognosis because of limited effective treatments and the rapid progression of the disease. On the other hand, the lack of characteristic clinical findings in mucormycosis and the challenge of early definitive diagnosis make early treatment difficult. Our goal was to establish a serodiagnostic method to detect Rhizopus specific antigen (RSA), and we have developed a diagnostic kit by Enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA) using a monoclonal antibody against this antigen. RSA increased over time in the serum and alveolar lavage fluid of R. oryzae-infected mice. RSA was also detected in serum and alveolar fluid, even at an early stage (Day 1), when the tissue invasion of R. oryzae mycelium was not histopathologically detectable in the lungs of R. oryzae-infected mice. Further evaluation is needed to determine the feasibility of using this assay in clinical practice.

Design of a cryptococcus neoformans vaccine by subtractive proteomics combined with immunoinformatics.

The emergence of Cryptococcus neoformans has posed an undeniable burden to many regions worldwide, with its strains mainly entering the lungs through the respiratory tract and spreading throughout the body. Limitations of drug regimens, such as high costs and limited options, have directed our attention toward the promising field of vaccine development. In this study, the subtractive proteomics approach was employed to select target proteins from databases that can accurately cover serotypes A and D of the Cryptococcus neoformans. Further, two multi-epitope vaccines consisting of T and B cell epitopes were demonstrated that they have good structural stability and could bind with immune receptor to induce desired immune responses in silico. After further evaluation, these vaccines show the potential for large-scale production and applicability to the majority of the population of the world. In summary, these two vaccines have been theoretically proven to combat Cryptococcus neoformans infections, awaiting further experimental validation of their actual protective effects.

Methods of Cryptococcal Polysaccharide Analysis Using ELISA.

One of the standard assays for the fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans is the glucuronoxylomannan (GXM) ELISA. This assay utilizes monoclonal antibodies targeted against the critical virulence factor, the polysaccharide (PS) capsule. GXM ELISA is one of the most used assays in the field used for diagnosis of cryptococcal infection, quantification of PS content, and determination of binding specificity for antibodies. Here we present three variations of the GXM ELISA used by our group-indirect, capture, and competition ELISAs. We have also provided some history, perspective, and notes on these methods, which we hope will help the reader choose, and implement, the best assay for their research.While it has long been referred to as the GXM ELISA, we also suggest a name update to better reflect our updated understanding of the polysaccharide antigens targeted by this assay. The Cryptococcal PS ELISA is a more accurate description of this set of methodologies and the antigens they measure. Finally, we discuss the limitations of this assay and put forth future plans for expanding the antigens assayed by ELISA.

Antibody Isolation in C. neoformans.

The importance of humoral immunity to fungal infections remains to be elucidated. In cryptococcosis, patients that fail to generate antibodies against antigens of the fungus Cryptococcus neoformans are more susceptible to the disease, demonstrating the importance of these molecules to the antifungal immune response. Historically, antibodies against C. neoformans have been applied in diagnosis, therapeutics, and as important research tools to elucidate fungal biology. Throughout the process of generating monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) from a single B-cell clone and targeting a single epitope, several immunization steps might be required for the detection of responsive antibodies to the antigen of interest in the serum. This complex mixture of antibodies comprises the polyclonal antibodies. To obtain mAbs, B-lymphocytes are harvested (from spleen or peripheral blood) and fused with tumor myeloma cells, to generate hybridomas that are individually cloned and specifically screened for mAb production. In this chapter, we describe all the necessary steps, from the immunization to polyclonal antibody harvesting, hybridoma generation, and mAb production and purification. Additionally, we discuss new cutting-edge approaches for generating interspecies mAbs, such as humanized mAbs, or for similar species in distinct host backgrounds.

Preparation of Biologically Active Fractions Enriched with Glucuronoxylomannan, the Main Antigen of the Cryptococcal Capsule.

Glucuronoxylomannan (GXM) is the principal capsular component in the Cryptococcus genus. This complex polysaccharide participates in numerous events related to the physiology and pathogenesis of Cryptococcus, which highlights the importance of establishing methods for its isolation and analysis. Conventional methods for GXM isolation have been extensively discussed in the literature. In this chapter, we describe two fast methods for obtaining extracellular fractions enriched with cryptococcal GXM.

Semisynthetic Glycoconjugate Vaccine Candidates against Cryptococcus neoformans.

Cryptococcus neoformans is a fungus classified by the World Health Organization as a critically important pathogen, which poses a significant threat to immunocompromised individuals. In this study, we present the chemical synthesis and evaluation of two semisynthetic vaccine candidates targeting the capsular polysaccharide glucuronoxylomannan (GXM) of C. neoformans. These semisynthetic glycoconjugate vaccines contain an identical synthetic decasaccharide (M2 motif) antigen. This antigen is present in serotype A strains, which constitute 95% of the clinical cryptococcosis cases. This synthetic oligosaccharide was conjugated to two proteins (CRM197 and Anthrax 63 kDa PA) and tested for immunogenicity in mice. The conjugates elicited a specific antibody response that bound to the M2 motif but also exhibited additional cross-reactivity toward M1 and M4 GXM motifs. Both glycoconjugates produced antibodies that bound to GXM in ELISA assays and to live fungal cells. Mice immunized with the CRM197 glycoconjugate produced weakly opsonic antibodies and displayed trends toward increased median survival relative to mice given a mock PBS injection (18 vs 15 days, p = 0.06). These findings indicate promise, achieving a successful vaccine demands further optimization of the glycoconjugate. This antigen could serve as a component in a multivalent GXM motif vaccine.

A novel indirect ELISA for serodiagnosis of mucormycosis using antigens from Rhizopus arrhizus.

BACKGROUND: Due to a delay in diagnosis by conventional techniques and high mortality, the development of a standardised and rapid non-culture-based technique is an unmet need in pulmonary, gastrointestinal, and disseminated forms of mucormycosis. Though limited studies have been conducted for molecular diagnosis, there are no established serologic tests for this highly fatal infection. OBJECTIVE: To develop and evaluate an indirect in-house enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) utilising antigens of Rhizopus arrhizus for detecting anti-Rhizopus antibodies (IgG and IgM) in sera of patients with mucormycosis. METHODS: We extracted both secretory and mycelial Rhizopus antigens using standardised protocols. Bradford assay was used for protein quantification. We then standardised an indirect ELISA using R. arrhizus mycelial and secretory antigens (10.0 µg/mL in bicarbonate buffer pH 9.2) for detecting anti-Rhizopus IgG and IgM antibodies in patient sera. We included patients with mucormycosis, other fungal infections, and healthy controls. Antibody index value (E-value) was calculated for each patient sample. RESULTS: Asparagine broth culture filtrate utilising 85% ammonium sulphate salt fractionation and mycelial homogenate grown in yeast extract peptone dextrose (YPD) broth precipitated with trichloroacetic acid (TCA) yielded a large amount of good-quality protein for the assay. We included 55 patients with mucormycosis (rhino-orbito-cerebral mucormycosis [ROCM, n = 39], pulmonary [n = 15], gastrointestinal [n = 1]), 24 with other fungal infections (probable aspergillosis [n = 14], candidiasis [n = 10]), and healthy controls (n = 16). The sensitivity of the antibody test for diagnosing mucormycosis ranged from 83.6-92.7% for IgG and 72.7-87.3% for IgM, with a specificity of 91.7-92.5% for IgG and 80-82.5% for IgM. The sera from patients with other fungal infections and healthy individuals did not show significant cross-reactivity. CONCLUSION: The detection of anti-Rhizopus IgG antibody performed significantly better in comparison to IgM-based ELISA for diagnosing both ROCM (sensitivity of 84.6% vs. 69.2%) and pulmonary cases (86.6% vs. 80.0%). More extensive studies are required to confirm our findings.

Fungal Sensitization and Human Allergic Disease.

PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW: Fungal sensitizations have been associated with hypersensitivity reactions with variable levels of evidence available to link types of fungi with human disease. We conducted systematic reviews of the literature to identify the strength of evidence linking lesser-studied fungi for which there are commercially available extracts to identify populations in which they were useful in clinical practice. RECENT FINDINGS: Excluding five fungi for which hundreds of articles were identified, there are 54 articles on the remaining fungi with clinical data. For 12 of the fungi, the prevalence of fungal sensitization varies in different hypersensitivity disorders due to factors related to geographic areas, age, and other underlying medical conditions. There were no studies linking seven genera to human disease. Most of the commercially available fungal extracts are uncommonly associated with hypersensitivity reactions in humans. Specific extracts may be useful in particular disease states such as allergic fungal sinusitis or allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis, or when routine testing fails to identify a cause of uncontrolled disease, such as in asthma.

Identification of the Most Immunoreactive Antigens of Candida auris to IgGs from Systemic Infections in Mice.

The delay in making a correct diagnosis of Candida auris causes concern in the healthcare system setting, and immunoproteomics studies are important to identify immunoreactive proteins for new diagnostic strategies. In this study, immunocompetent murine systemic infections caused by non-aggregative and aggregative phenotypes of C. auris and by Candida albicans and Candida haemulonii were carried out, and the obtained sera were used to study their immunoreactivity against C. auris proteins. The results showed higher virulence, in terms of infection signs, weight loss, and histopathological damage, of the non-aggregative isolate. Moreover, C. auris was less virulent than C. albicans but more than C. haemulonii. Regarding the immunoproteomics study, 13 spots recognized by sera from mice infected with both C. auris phenotypes and analyzed by mass spectrometry corresponded to enolase, phosphoglycerate kinase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and phosphoglycerate mutase. These four proteins were also recognized by sera obtained from human patients with disseminated C. auris infection but not by sera obtained from mice infected with C. albicans or Aspergillus fumigatus. Spot identification data are available via ProteomeXchange with the identifier PXD049077. In conclusion, this study showed that the identified proteins could be potential candidates to be studied as new diagnostic or even therapeutic targets for C. auris.

Efficacy of Intralesional Candida Antigen Versus Measles, Mumps, and Rubella Vaccine Versus Topical Podophyllin in Treatment of Resistant Genital Warts.

BACKGROUND: No single treatment is ideal for genital warts with high rate of resistance using conventional modalities as topical podophyllin; however, several intralesional immunotherapies are being tested nowadays, with variable results. In this study, we compared the safety and efficacy of treating resistant and recurrent genital warts by 2 intralesional immunotherapies [Candida antigen and measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine] and compared them with topical podophyllin. PATIENTS/METHODS: A total of 45 patients with resistant or recurrent genital warts were enrolled in this study. Size and number of warts were detected in each patient, patients were divided into 3 groups. Group A injected with intralesional Candida antigen. Group B with intralesional MMR vaccine. Group C were treated with topical 25% podophyllin. Patients received a session every 2 weeks for 3 treatment sessions. RESULTS: With regard to the reduction in size and number of all warts, the best response was obtained in Candida antigen group where 46.7% showed complete clearance and 40% showed partial response followed by MMR group and the last was the podophyllin group, with no significant difference between them. Complete clearance of mother warts was noticed in 86.7% of Candida group, 53.3% in MMR group, and last 40% in podophyllin group, with a significantly better response in the Candida group (P = .027). CONCLUSION: Both intralesional Candida antigen and MMR vaccine are simple, safe, and effective treatment options with comparable results and better response than topical podophyllin.

Identification of allergens from Aspergillus fumigatus-Potential association with lung damage in asthma.

BACKGROUND: Component-resolved diagnosis allows detection of IgE sensitization having the advantage of reproducibility and standardization compared to crude extracts. The main disadvantage of the traditional allergen identification methods, 1- or 2-dimensional western blotting and screening of expression cDNA libraries with patients' IgEs, is that the native structure of the protein is not necessarily maintained. METHODS: We used a novel immunoprecipitation technique in combination with mass spectrometry to identify new allergens of Aspergillus fumigatus. Magnetic Dynabeads coupled with anti-human IgE antibodies were used to purify human serum IgE and subsequently allergens from A. fumigatus protein extract. RESULTS: Of the 184 proteins detected by subsequent mass peptide fingerprinting, a subset of 13 were recombinantly expressed and purified. In a panel of 52 A. fumigatus-sensitized people with asthma, 23 non-fungal-sensitized asthmatics and 18 healthy individuals, only the former showed an IgE reaction by immunoblotting and/or ELISA. We discovered 11 proteins not yet described as A. fumigatus allergens, with fructose-bisphosphate aldolase class II (FBA2) (33%), NAD-dependent malate dehydrogenase (31%) and Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (27%) being the most prevalent. With respect to these three allergens, native versus denatured protein assays indicated a better recognition of the native proteins. Seven of 11 allergens fulfilled the WHO/IUIS criteria and were accepted as new A. fumigatus allergens. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, we introduce a straightforward method of allergen identification from complex allergenic sources such as A. fumigatus by immunoprecipitation combined with mass spectrometry, which has the advantage over traditional methods of identifying allergens by maintaining the structure of the proteins.

Nanopore sequencing of cerebrospinal fluid of three patients with cryptococcal meningitis.

BACKGROUND: Cryptococcal meningitis (CM) has a high morbidity and mortality due to the low detection of Cryptococcus in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) during the early stage of the disease with traditional methods. CASE PRESENTATION: In addition to the traditional methods of India ink staining and cryptococcal antigen (CrAg), we used nanopore sequencing and next-generation sequencing (NGS) to detect pathogenic DNA in CSF samples of three patients with CM. The CSF samples of all three patients were positive by India ink staining and CrAg. NGS also detected Cryptococcus in all three CSF samples. Nanopore sequencing detected Cryptococcus in two CSF samples. CONCLUSION: Nanopore sequencing may be useful in assisting with the clinical diagnosis of CM. Further research is needed to determine the sensitivity and specificity of nanopore sequencing of CSF.

Complement-Mediated Differential Immune Response of Human Macrophages to Sporothrix Species Through Interaction With Their Cell Wall Peptidorhamnomannans.

In this study, the human immune response mechanisms against Sporothrix brasiliensis and Sporothrix schenckii, two causative agents of human and animal sporotrichosis, were investigated. The interaction of S. brasiliensis and S. schenckii with human monocyte-derived macrophages (hMDMs) was shown to be dependent on the thermolabile serum complement protein C3, which facilitated the phagocytosis of Sporothrix yeast cells through opsonization. The peptidorhamnomannan (PRM) component of the cell walls of these two Sporothrix yeasts was found to be one of their surfaces exposed pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP), leading to activation of the complement system and deposition of C3b on the Sporothrix yeast surfaces. PRM also showed direct interaction with CD11b, the specific component of the complement receptor-3 (CR3). Furthermore, the blockade of CR3 specifically impacted the interleukin (IL)-1ß secretion by hMDM in response to both S. brasiliensis and S. schenckii, suggesting that the host complement system plays an essential role in the inflammatory immune response against these Sporothrix species. Nevertheless, the structural differences in the PRMs of the two Sporothrix species, as revealed by NMR, were related to the differences observed in the host complement activation pathways. Together, this work reports a new PAMP of the cell surface of pathogenic fungi playing a role through the activation of complement system and via CR3 receptor mediating an inflammatory response to Sporothrix species.

Peptides derived from gp43, the most antigenic protein from Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, form amyloid fibrils in vitro: implications for vaccine development.

Fungal infection is an important health problem in Latin America, and in Brazil in particular. Paracoccidioides (mainly P. brasiliensis and P. lutzii) is responsible for paracoccidioidomycosis, a disease that affects mainly the lungs. The glycoprotein gp43 is involved in fungi adhesion to epithelial cells, which makes this protein an interesting target of study. A specific stretch of 15 amino acids that spans the region 181-195 (named P10) of gp43 is an important epitope of gp43 that is being envisioned as a vaccine candidate. Here we show that synthetic P10 forms typical amyloid aggregates in solution in very short times, a property that could hamper vaccine development. Seeds obtained by fragmentation of P10 fibrils were able to induce the aggregation of P4, but not P23, two other peptides derived from gp43. In silico analysis revealed several regions within the P10 sequence that can form amyloid with steric zipper architecture. Besides, in-silico proteolysis studies with gp43 revealed that aggregation-prone, P10-like peptides could be generated by several proteases, which suggests that P10 could be formed under physiological conditions. Considering our data in the context of a potential vaccine development, we redesigned the sequence of P10, maintaining the antigenic region (HTLAIR), but drastically reducing its aggregation propensity.

Antibody- Based Immunotherapy Combined With Antimycotic Drug TMP- SMX to Treat Infection With Paracoccidioides brasiliensis.

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are promising alternatives to treat infectious diseases, especially given their potential for applications in combination therapies with antimicrobial drugs to enhance the antifungal efficacy. Protection mediated by mAbs used to treat experimental paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM) has been demonstrated previously. Our aim in the present work was to characterize a monoclonal antibody (mAbF1.4) raised against a cell wall glycoconjugate fraction of Paracoccidioides spp. and to analyze its efficacy combined with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX) as treatment for experimental PCM. We demonstrated that the epitope recognized by mAbF1.4 is consistent with branched glucose residues present on a cell wall ß-glucan polymer. In vitro, mAbF1.4 increased the phagocytic capacity and nitric oxide concentration induced by the macrophage cell line J774.1A, and this resulted in a significant reduction in the viability of the opsonophagocytized yeasts. In vivo, we detected a significant reduction in pulmonary fungal burdens of mice treated with mAbF1.4 in association with TMP/SMX, which correlated with increased pulmonary concentrations (determined by ELISA) of IFN- Î³, TNF-α, IL-10 and IL-17. In parallel, we observed a decrease in IL-4, suggesting that the treatment was associated with a mixed Th1-Th17 type immune response. Histopathology of lung segments from mice receiving the combination therapy showed a significant reduction in granulomas, which were well-defined, and improved maintenance of lung architecture. These findings demonstrate that mAbF1.4 + TMP/SMX therapy is a promising approach to combat PCM as well as decrease disease sequelae and highlights the potential benefits of immune mediators in PCM combined immunotherapy.

In Silico Designing of a Multitope Vaccine against Rhizopus microsporus with Potential Activity against Other Mucormycosis Causing Fungi.

During the current era of the COVID-19 pandemic, the dissemination of Mucorales has been reported globally, with elevated rates of infection in India, and because of the high rate of mortality and morbidity, designing an effective vaccine against mucormycosis is a major health priority, especially for immunocompromised patients. In the current study, we studied shared Mucorales proteins, which have been reported as virulence factors, and after analysis of several virulent proteins for their antigenicity and subcellular localization, we selected spore coat (CotH) and serine protease (SP) proteins as the targets of epitope mapping. The current study proposes a vaccine constructed based on top-ranking cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL), helper T lymphocyte (HTL), and B cell lymphocyte (BCL) epitopes from filtered proteins. In addition to the selected epitopes, ß-defensins adjuvant and PADRE peptide were included in the constructed vaccine to improve the stimulated immune response. Computational tools were used to estimate the physicochemical and immunological features of the proposed vaccine and validate its binding with TLR-2, where the output data of these assessments potentiate the probability of the constructed vaccine to stimulate a specific immune response against mucormycosis. Here, we demonstrate the approach of potential vaccine construction and assessment through computational tools, and to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study of a proposed vaccine against mucormycosis based on the immunoinformatics approach.

Immunotherapy With Recombinant Alt a 1 Suppresses Allergic Asthma and Influences T Follicular Cells and Regulatory B Cells in Mice.

Background: Alternaria is a major source of asthma-inducing allergens. Allergen-specific immunotherapy improves the progression of allergic asthma. The current treatment is based on crude Alternaria extracts. Alt a 1 is the predominant allergen in Alternaria. However, the treatment efficacy of recombinant Alt a 1 (rAlt a 1) in an asthmatic animal model and its influence on Tfh and Breg cells are unknown. Objective: To explore the therapeutic treatment effects of rAlt a 1 on the progress of an asthmatic mouse model and its effect on Tfh and Breg cells. Methods: We synthesized and purified rAlt a 1. Alternaria-sensitized and challenged mice received subcutaneous immunotherapy (SCIT) with four different rAlt a 1 dosages (5, 50, 100, and 150 µg) or PBS only. Finally, lung and airway inflammation, mouse mast cell protease 1 (MMCP-1), serum immunoglobulin responses, Tfh and Breg cell levels, and the correlation between asthmatic features (inflammation grades and IL-4 and IL-10 levels) and these two cell types were measured after Alternaria rechallenge. Results: High purity and allergenic potency of rAlt a 1 protein were obtained. Following treatment with four different rAlt a 1 dosages, both lung and airway inflammation ameliorated, including lung pathology, serum MMCP-1 levels, inflammatory cell numbers, and cytokine levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). Additionally, rAlt a 1-SCIT increased the expression of Alternaria-sIgG1, rAlt a 1-sIgG1, rAlt a 1-sIgG2a, and rAlt a 1-sIgG2b in serum. Moreover, the number and percentage of CXCR5+PD-1+Tfh cells were increased in the PC control, while they decreased in the rAlt a 1-SCIT groups. Meanwhile, the absolute numbers and proportions of Breg cells were evaluated after administration of rAlt a 1. A positive correlation was observed between CXCR5+PD-1+Tfh cells and inflammation grades (r = 0.50, p = 0.01), as well as a slightly strong positive relationship with IL-4 (r = 0.55, p = 0.005) and IL-10 (r = 0.58, p = 0.003) levels; Breg cells showed an opposite correlation with the grades of inflammation (r = -0.68, p = 0.0003), along with a negative correlation to IL-4 (r = -0.61, p = 0.001) and IL-10 (r = -0.53, p = 0.008) levels. Conclusions: We verified that treatment with rAlt a 1 can alleviate asthma progression and further have a regulatory effect on Tfh and Breg cells in an Alternaria-induced asthmatic mouse model.

CD4+ T cells in the lungs of acute sarcoidosis patients recognize an Aspergillus nidulans epitope.

Löfgren's syndrome (LS) is an acute form of sarcoidosis characterized by a genetic association with HLA-DRB1*03 (HLA-DR3) and an accumulation of CD4+ T cells of unknown specificity in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL). Here, we screened related LS-specific TCRs for antigen specificity and identified a peptide derived from NAD-dependent histone deacetylase hst4 (NDPD) of Aspergillus nidulans that stimulated these CD4+ T cells in an HLA-DR3-restricted manner. Using ELISPOT analysis, a greater number of IFN-γ- and IL-2-secreting T cells in the BAL of DR3+ LS subjects compared with DR3+ control subjects was observed in response to the NDPD peptide. Finally, increased IgG antibody responses to A. nidulans NDPD were detected in the serum of DR3+ LS subjects. Thus, our findings identify a ligand for CD4+ T cells derived from the lungs of LS patients and suggest a role of A. nidulans in the etiology of LS.

Protective Response in Experimental Paracoccidioidomycosis Elicited by Extracellular Vesicles Containing Antigens of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis.

Paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM) is a systemic disease caused by Paracoccidioides spp. PCM is endemic in Latin America and most cases are registered in Brazil. This mycosis affects mainly the lungs, but can also spread to other tissues and organs, including the liver. Several approaches have been investigated to improve treatment effectiveness and protection against the disease. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are good antigen delivery vehicles. The present work aims to investigate the use of EVs derived from Paracoccidioides brasiliensis as an immunization tool in a murine model of PCM. For this, male C57BL/6 were immunized with two doses of EVs plus adjuvant and then infected with P. brasiliensis. EV immunization induced IgM and IgG in vivo and cytokine production by splenocytes ex vivo. Further, immunization with EVs had a positive effect on mice infected with P. brasiliensis, as it induced activated T lymphocytes and NKT cell mobilization to the infected lungs, improved production of proinflammatory cytokines and the histopathological profile, and reduced fungal burden. Therefore, the present study shows a new role for P. brasiliensis EVs in the presence of adjuvant as modulators of the host immune system, suggesting their utility as immunizing agents.