Ancestral allele of DNA polymerase gamma modifies antiviral tolerance.

Mitochondria are critical modulators of antiviral tolerance through the release of mitochondrial RNA and DNA (mtDNA and mtRNA) fragments into the cytoplasm after infection, activating virus sensors and type-I interferon (IFN-I) response1-4. The relevance of these mechanisms for mitochondrial diseases remains understudied. Here we investigated mitochondrial recessive ataxia syndrome (MIRAS), which is caused by a common European founder mutation in DNA polymerase gamma (POLG1)5. Patients homozygous for the MIRAS variant p.W748S show exceptionally variable ages of onset and symptoms5, indicating that unknown modifying factors contribute to disease manifestation. We report that the mtDNA replicase POLG1 has a role in antiviral defence mechanisms to double-stranded DNA and positive-strand RNA virus infections (HSV-1, TBEV and SARS-CoV-2), and its p.W748S variant dampens innate immune responses. Our patient and knock-in mouse data show that p.W748S compromises mtDNA replisome stability, causing mtDNA depletion, aggravated by virus infection. Low mtDNA and mtRNA release into the cytoplasm and a slow IFN response in MIRAS offer viruses an early replicative advantage, leading to an augmented pro-inflammatory response, a subacute loss of GABAergic neurons and liver inflammation and necrosis. A population databank of around 300,000 Finnish individuals6 demonstrates enrichment of immunodeficient traits in carriers of the POLG1 p.W748S mutation. Our evidence suggests that POLG1 defects compromise antiviral tolerance, triggering epilepsy and liver disease. The finding has important implications for the mitochondrial disease spectrum, including epilepsy, ataxia and parkinsonism.

Genetic polymorphisms in innate immunity genes influence predisposition to tick-borne encephalitis.

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a neuroviral disease that ranges in severity from a mild febrile illness to a severe and life-threatening meningoencephalitis or encephalomyelitis. There is increasing evidence that susceptibility to tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV)-induced disease and its severity are largely influenced by host genetic factors, in addition to other virus- and host-related factors. In this study, we investigated the contribution of selected single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in innate immunity genes to predisposition to TBE in humans. More specifically, we investigated a possible association between SNPs rs304478 and rs303212 in the gene Interferon Induced Protein With Tetratricopeptide Repeats 1 (IFIT1), rs7070001 and rs4934470 in the gene Interferon Induced Protein With Tetratricopeptide Repeats 2 (IFIT2), and RIG-I (Retinoic acid-inducible gene I) encoding gene DDX58 rs311795343, rs10813831, rs17217280 and rs3739674 SNPs with predisposition to TBE in population of the Czech Republic, where TBEV is highly endemic. Genotypic and allelic frequencies for these SNPs were analyzed in 247 nonimmunized TBE patients and compared with 204 control subjects. The analysis showed an association of IFIT1 rs304478 SNP and DDX58 rs3739674 and rs17217280 SNPs with predisposition to TBE in the Czech population indicating novel risk factors for clinical TBE but not for disease severity. These results also highlight the role of innate immunity genes in TBE pathogenesis.

Dual control of tick-borne encephalitis virus replication by autophagy in mouse macrophages.

Autophagy is a lysosomal degradative pathway responsible for recycling cytosolic proteins and organelles and also functions as an innate defense mechanism that host cells use against viral infection. While many viruses have evolved mechanisms to antagonize the antiviral effects of the autophagy pathway, others subvert autophagy to facilitate replication. For flaviviruses, both the positive and negative role of autophagy in virus replication has been reported. The interplay between autophagy and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) in innate immune cells is largely unknown. Here we report the relationship between an autophagy and TBEV replication in mouse macrophage cell line PMJ2-R using Hypr strain of TBEV. First, we examined the effect of Hypr infection on the autophagy pathway. We detected a mild and a temporary increase of autophagy marker LC3-II in Hypr-infected cells. The role of autophagy in TBEV replication was evaluated in autophagy related gene 5 (Atg5) knockdown cells (shAtg5). Our results showed that during an early stage of Hypr infection the viral titers were increased, while later on, at 72 hpi, the titers have declined in shAtg5 cells compared to control. Moreover, the higher number of virus-positive cells was observed in shAtg5 cells in early stage of infection and correlated with enhanced virus entry. Finally, we found an increased production of IFN-ß in Hypr-infected shAtg5 cells in comparison to control at 48 and 72 hpi implicating that autophagy restricts the amount of IFN produced by TBEV-infected macrophages. To conclude, in mouse macrophages TBEV replication is controlled by autophagy in time dependent manner, having temporally an antiviral and then a pro-viral role during infection. Our study points out to a delicate and complex involvement of autophagy machinery at level of virus entry and IFN-ß production when controlling TBEV infection.

Guanine quadruplexes in the RNA genome of the tick-borne encephalitis virus: their role as a new antiviral target and in virus biology.

We have identified seven putative guanine quadruplexes (G4) in the RNA genome of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), a flavivirus causing thousands of human infections and numerous deaths every year. The formation of G4s was confirmed by biophysical methods on synthetic oligonucleotides derived from the predicted TBEV sequences. TBEV-5, located at the NS4b/NS5 boundary and conserved among all known flaviviruses, was tested along with its mutated variants for interactions with a panel of known G4 ligands, for the ability to affect RNA synthesis by the flaviviral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) and for effects on TBEV replication fitness in cells. G4-stabilizing TBEV-5 mutations strongly inhibited RdRp RNA synthesis and exhibited substantially reduced replication fitness, different plaque morphology and increased sensitivity to G4-binding ligands in cell-based systems. In contrast, strongly destabilizing TBEV-5 G4 mutations caused rapid reversion to the wild-type genotype. Our results suggest that there is a threshold of stability for G4 sequences in the TBEV genome, with any deviation resulting in either dramatic changes in viral phenotype or a rapid return to this optimal level of G4 stability. The data indicate that G4s are critical elements for efficient TBEV replication and are suitable targets to tackle TBEV infection.

Y-shaped RNA secondary structure of a noncoding region in the genomic RNA of tick-borne encephalitis virus affects pathogenicity.

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is a zoonotic virus that causes encephalitis in humans. Various deletions have been reported in a variable region of the 3' untranslated region of the TBEV genome. This study analyzed the role of a Y-shaped secondary structure in the pathogenicity of TBEV by using reverse genetics. Deletion of the structure increased the mortality rate of virus-infected mice but did not affect the virus multiplication in cultured cells and organs. The results indicate that the secondary structure is involved in the regulation of TBEV pathogenesis.

The Role of IFITM Proteins in Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus Infection.

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), of the genus Flavivirus, is a causative agent of severe encephalitis in regions of endemicity of northern Asia and central and northern Europe. Interferon-induced transmembrane proteins (IFITMs) are restriction factors that inhibit the replication cycles of numerous viruses, including flaviviruses such as West Nile virus, dengue virus, and Zika virus. Here, we demonstrate the role of IFITM1, IFITM2, and IFITM3 in the inhibition of TBEV infection and in protection against virus-induced cell death. We show that the most significant role is that of IFITM3, including the dissection of its functional motifs by mutagenesis. Furthermore, through the use of CRISPR-Cas9-generated IFITM1/3-knockout monoclonal cell lines, we confirm the role and additive action of endogenous IFITMs in TBEV suppression. However, the results of coculture assays suggest that TBEV might partially escape interferon- and IFITM-mediated suppression during high-density coculture infection when the virus enters naive cells directly from infected donor cells. Thus, cell-to-cell spread may constitute a strategy for virus escape from innate host defenses. IMPORTANCE TBEV infection may result in encephalitis, chronic illness, or death. TBEV is endemic in northern Asia and Europe; however, due to climate change, new centers of endemicity have arisen. Although effective TBEV vaccines have been approved, vaccination coverage is low, and due to the lack of specific therapeutics, infected individuals depend on their immune responses to control the infection. IFITM proteins are components of the innate antiviral defenses that suppress cell entry of many viral pathogens. However, no studies on the role of IFITM proteins in TBEV infection have been published thus far. Understanding antiviral innate immune responses is crucial for the future development of antiviral strategies. Here, we show the important role of IFITM proteins in the inhibition of TBEV infection and virus-mediated cell death. However, our data suggest that TBEV cell-to-cell spread may be less prone to both interferon- and IFITM-mediated suppression, potentially facilitating escape from IFITM-mediated immunity.

Selected Biomarkers of Tick-Borne Encephalitis: A Review.

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is an acute disease caused by the tick-borne encephalitis virus. Due to the viral nature of the condition, there is no effective causal treatment for full-blown disease. Current and nonspecific TBE treatments only relieve symptoms. Unfortunately, the first phase of TBE is characterized by flu-like symptoms, making diagnosis difficult during this period. The second phase is referred to as the neurological phase as it involves structures in the central nervous system-most commonly the meninges and, in more severe cases, the brain and the spinal cord. Therefore, it is important that early markers of TBE that will guide clinical decision-making and the choice of treatment are established. In this review, we performed an extensive search of literature reports relevant to biomarkers associated with TBE using the MEDLINE/PubMed database. We observed that apart from routinely determined specific immunoglobulins, free light chains may also be useful in the evaluation of intrathecal synthesis in the central nervous system (CNS) during TBEV infection. Moreover, selected metalloproteinases, chemokines, or cytokines appear to play an important role in the pathogenesis of TBE as a consequence of inflammatory reactions and recruitment of white blood cells into the CNS. Furthermore, we reported promising findings on tau protein or Toll-like receptors. It was also observed that some people may be predisposed to TBE. Therefore, to understand the role of selected tick-borne encephalitis biomarkers, we categorized these factors and discussed their potential application in the diagnosis, prognosis, monitoring, or management of TBE.

[Genetic Variability of Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus Genome 5'-UTR from Northern Eurasia].

This paper reports the analysis of the nucleotide sequences of the 5'-untranslated region (5'-UTR) of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) genomic RNA isolated from 39 individual taiga ticks collected in several regions of Northern Eurasia. The sequences of 5'-UTRs of the Siberian and Far East TBEV genotypes were 89% and 95% identical to the prototype strains (Zausaev and 205), respectively. The detected nucleotide substitutions were typical for these two TBEV genotypes, which made possible unambiguous identification. Both conservative and variable motifs were detected in the 5'-UTR RNA. The B2, C1, and C2 elements of the Y-shaped 5'-UTR structure and the presumable viral RNA-dependent RNA-polymerase binding site were the most variable. The A2, CS A, CS В elements as well as the start codon were conservative. Interestingly, five substitutions in the 5'-UTR C1 variable element of the TBEVs isolated in different geographical regions were strictly conservative, while 11 different substitutions were detected in this element among the laboratory TBEV variants. A little less that a third of all nucleotide substitutions were mapped outside the main elements of the Y-shaped structure. In general, nucleotide substitutions were localized to stem structures, not being found in the hairpin regions of the TBEV 5'-UTR. The results indicated significant variability of the genomic RNA 5'-UTR in the TBEV laboratory strains and field isolates obtained from different geographical regions. It has been suggested that genetic variability of 5'-UTR is characteristic of the TBEV genome 5'-UTR organization and may serve as a structural basis for virus efficient replication in various avian, mammalian, and ixodic tick cells.

Alkhurma haemorrhagic fever virus causes lethal disease in IFNAR-/- mice.

ABSTRACTAlkhurma haemorrhagic fever virus (AHFV), a tick-borne flavivirus closely related to Kyasanur Forest disease virus, is the causative agent of a severe, sometimes fatal haemorrhagic/encephalitic disease in humans. To date, there are no specific treatments or vaccines available to combat AHFV infections. A challenge for the development of countermeasures is the absence of a reliable AHFV animal disease model for efficacy testing. Here, we used mice lacking the type I interferon (IFN) receptor (IFNAR-/-). AHFV strains Zaki-2 and 2003 both caused uniform lethality in these mice after intraperitoneal injection, but strain 2003 seemed more virulent with a median lethal dose of 0.4 median tissue culture infectious doses (TCID50). Disease manifestation in this animal model was similar to case reports of severe human AHFV infections with early generalized signs leading to haemorrhagic and neurologic complications. AHFV infection resulted in early high viremia followed by high viral loads (<108 TCID50/g tissue) in all analyzed organs. Despite systemic viral replication, virus-induced pathology was mainly found in the spleen, lymph nodes, liver and heart. This uniformly lethal AHFV disease model will be instrumental for pathogenesis studies and countermeasure development against this neglected zoonotic pathogen.

The increased intrathecal expression of the monocyte-attracting chemokines CCL7 and CXCL12 in tick-borne encephalitis.

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a relatively severe and clinically variable central nervous system (CNS) disease with a significant contribution of a secondary immunopathology. Monocytes/macrophages play an important role in the CNS inflammation, but their pathogenetic role and migration mechanisms in flavivirus encephalitis in humans are not well known. We have retrospectively analyzed blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) monocyte counts in 240 patients with TBE presenting as meningitis (n = 110), meningoencephalitis (n = 114), or meningoencephalomyelitis (n = 16), searching for associations with other laboratory parameters, clinical presentation, and severity. We have measured concentrations of selected monocytes-attracting chemokines (CCL7, CXCL12, CCL20) in serum and CSF of the prospectively recruited patients with TBE (n = 15), with non-TBE aseptic meningitis (n = 6) and in non-infected controls (n = 8). The data were analyzed with non-parametric tests, p < 0.05 considered significant. Monocyte CSF count correlated with other CSF inflammatory parameters, but not with the peripheral monocytosis, consistent with an active recruitment into CNS. The monocyte count did not correlate with a clinical presentation. The median CSF concentration of CCL7 and CXCL12 was increased in TBE, and that of CCL7 was higher in TBE than in non-TBE meningitis. The comparison of serum and CSF concentrations pointed to the intrathecal synthesis of CCL7 and CXCL12, but with no evident concentration gradients toward CSF. In conclusion, the monocytes are recruited into the intrathecal compartment in concert with other leukocyte populations in TBE. CCL7 and CXCL12 have been found upregulated intrathecally but are not likely to be the main monocyte chemoattractants.

The envelope protein of tick-borne encephalitis virus influences neuron entry, pathogenicity, and vaccine protection.

BACKGROUND: Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is considered to be the medically most important arthropod-borne virus in Europe. The symptoms of an infection range from subclinical to mild flu-like disease to lethal encephalitis. The exact determinants of disease severity are not known; however, the virulence of the strain as well as the immune status of the host are thought to be important factors for the outcome of the infection. Here we investigated virulence determinants in TBEV infection. METHOD: Mice were infected with different TBEV strains, and high virulent and low virulent TBEV strains were chosen. Sequence alignment identified differences that were cloned to generate chimera virus. The infection rate of the parental and chimeric virus were evaluated in primary mouse neurons, astrocytes, mouse embryonic fibroblasts, and in vivo. Neutralizing capacity of serum from individuals vaccinated with the FSME-IMMUN® and Encepur® or combined were evaluated. RESULTS: We identified a highly pathogenic and neurovirulent TBEV strain, 93/783. Using sequence analysis, we identified the envelope (E) protein of 93/783 as a potential virulence determinant and cloned it into the less pathogenic TBEV strain Torö. We found that the chimeric virus specifically infected primary neurons more efficiently compared to wild-type (WT) Torö and this correlated with enhanced pathogenicity and higher levels of viral RNA in vivo. The E protein is also the major target of neutralizing antibodies; thus, genetic variation in the E protein could influence the efficiency of the two available vaccines, FSME-IMMUN® and Encepur®. As TBEV vaccine breakthroughs have occurred in Europe, we chose to compare neutralizing capacity from individuals vaccinated with the two different vaccines or a combination of them. Our data suggest that the different vaccines do not perform equally well against the two Swedish strains. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings show that two amino acid substitutions of the E protein found in 93/783, A83T, and A463S enhanced Torö infection of neurons as well as pathogenesis and viral replication in vivo; furthermore, we found that genetic divergence from the vaccine strain resulted in lower neutralizing antibody titers in vaccinated individuals.

Tick-borne encephalitis virus inhibits rRNA synthesis and host protein production in human cells of neural origin.

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), a member of the genus Flavivirus (Flaviviridae), is a causative agent of a severe neuroinfection. Recently, several flaviviruses have been shown to interact with host protein synthesis. In order to determine whether TBEV interacts with this host process in its natural target cells, we analysed de novo protein synthesis in a human cell line derived from cerebellar medulloblastoma (DAOY HTB-186). We observed a significant decrease in the rate of host protein synthesis, including the housekeeping genes HPRT1 and GAPDH and the known interferon-stimulated gene viperin. In addition, TBEV infection resulted in a specific decrease of RNA polymerase I (POLR1) transcripts, 18S and 28S rRNAs and their precursor, 45-47S pre-rRNA, but had no effect on the POLR3 transcribed 5S rRNA levels. To our knowledge, this is the first report of flavivirus-induced decrease of specifically POLR1 rRNA transcripts accompanied by host translational shut-off.

[New Genetic Marker of Human Predisposition to Severe Forms of Tick-Borne Encephalitis].

The causative agent of tick-borne encephalitis (a neurotropic RNA virus from the Flavivirus genus) can cause both severe paralytic forms of the disease (meningoencephalitis, etc.) and milder nonparalytic forms (fever and meningitis). The organism response to viral infection (and, as a consequence, the nature and outcome of the disease) significantly depends on individual peculiarities of the human organism protective systems predetermined by genome structure. Human genetic predisposition to tick-borne encephalitis has been poorly studied. In the present work, the results of the search for new genes that predetermine the peculiarities and outcome of tick-borne encephalitis in humans are presented. The aim of the work was to verify the association between three previously detected (using the exome sequencing on a limited sample of tick-borne encephalitis patients with severe forms) SNPs: intronic rs3109675 (C/T) in the COL5A1 gene, intronic rs41554313 (A/G) in the POLRMT gene, and intergenic rs10006630 (C/A), and the predisposition to tick-borne encephalitis in a Russian population (using an extended sample of patients with different forms of tick-borne encephalitis). The association of the rs10006630 SNP located in chromosome 4 between the FABP2 and LINC01061 genes with a predisposition to tick-borne encephalitis was confirmed. This SNP can be considered as a new genetic marker of a human predisposition to severe forms of tick-borne encephalitis. The possible regulatory role of this SNP in the functioning of neighboring genes and a mechanism of its effect on the development of predisposition to severe forms of tick-borne encephalitis require further study.

Exome-wide search and functional annotation of genes associated in patients with severe tick-borne encephalitis in a Russian population.

BACKGROUND: Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a viral infectious disease caused by tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). TBEV infection is responsible for a variety of clinical manifestations ranging from mild fever to severe neurological illness. Genetic factors involved in the host response to TBEV that may potentially play a role in the severity of the disease are still poorly understood. In this study, using whole-exome sequencing, we aimed to identify genetic variants and genes associated with severe forms of TBE as well as biological pathways through which the identified variants may influence the severity of the disease. RESULTS: Whole-exome sequencing data analysis was performed on 22 Russian patients with severe forms of TBE and 17 Russian individuals from the control group. We identified 2407 candidate genes harboring rare, potentially pathogenic variants in exomes of patients with TBE and not containing any rare, potentially pathogenic variants in exomes of individuals from the control group. According to DAVID tool, this set of 2407 genes was enriched with genes involved in extracellular matrix proteoglycans pathway and genes encoding proteins located at the cell periphery. A total of 154 genes/proteins from these functional groups have been shown to be involved in protein-protein interactions (PPIs) with the known candidate genes/proteins extracted from TBEVHostDB database. By ranking these genes according to the number of rare harmful minor alleles, we identified two genes (MSR1 and LMO7), harboring five minor alleles, and three genes (FLNA, PALLD, PKD1) harboring four minor alleles. When considering genes harboring genetic variants associated with severe forms of TBE at the suggestive P-value < 0.01, 46 genes containing harmful variants were identified. Out of these 46 genes, eight (MAP4, WDFY4, ACTRT2, KLHL25, MAP2K3, MBD1, OR10J1, and OR2T34) were additionally found among genes containing rare pathogenic variants identified in patients with TBE; and five genes (WDFY4, ALK, MAP4, BNIPL, EPPK1) were found to encode proteins that are involved in PPIs with proteins encoded by genes from TBEVHostDB. Three genes out of five (MAP4, EPPK1, ALK) were found to encode proteins located at cell periphery. CONCLUSIONS: Whole-exome sequencing followed by systems biology approach enabled to identify eight candidate genes (MAP4, WDFY4, ACTRT2, KLHL25, MAP2K3, MBD1, OR10J1, and OR2T34) that can potentially determine predisposition to severe forms of TBE. Analyses of the genetic risk factors for severe forms of TBE revealed a significant enrichment with genes controlling extracellular matrix proteoglycans pathway as well as genes encoding components of cell periphery.

Host immunogenetics in tick-borne encephalitis virus infection-The CCR5 crossroad.

The human Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) infection is a complex event encompassing factors derived from the virus itself, the vectors, the final host, and the environment as well. Classically, genetic traits stand out among the human factors that modify the susceptibility and progression of infectious diseases. However, and although this is a changing scenario, studies evaluating the genetic factors that affect the susceptibility specifically to TBEV infection and TBEV-related diseases are still scarce. There are already some interesting pieces of evidence showing that some genes and polymorphisms have a real impact on TBEV infection. Also, the inflammatory processes involving tick-human interactions began to be understood in greater detail. This review focuses on the immunogenetic and inflammatory aspects concerning tick-host interactions, TBEV infections, and tick-borne encephalitis. Of note, it has been described that polymorphisms in CD209, GSTM1, IL-10, IL-28B, MMP9, OAS2, OAS3, and TLR3 have a statistically significant impact on TBEV infection. Besides, CCR5, its ligands, and the CCR5Δ32 genetic variant seem to have a very important influence on the infection and its immune responses. Taking this information into consideration, a special discussion regarding the effects of CCR5 on TBEV infection and tick-borne encephalitis will be presented. Emerging topics (such as exosomes, evasins, and CCR5 blockers) involving immunological and inflammatory aspects of TBEV-human interactions will also be addressed. Lastly, the current picture of TBEV infection and the importance to address the TBEV-associated problems through the One Health perspective will be discussed.

A matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) gene single nucleotide polymorphism is associated with predisposition to tick-borne encephalitis virus-induced severe central nervous system disease.

The progression of infectious diseases depends on causative agents, the environment and the host's genetic susceptibility. To date, human genetic susceptibility to tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus-induced disease has not been sufficiently studied. We have combined whole-exome sequencing with a candidate gene approach to identify genes that are involved in the development of predisposition to TBE in a Russian population. Initially, six exomes from TBE patients with severe central nervous system (CNS) disease and seven exomes from control individuals were sequenced. Despite the small sample size, two nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were significantly associated with TBE virus-induced severe CNS disease. One of these SNPs is rs6558394 (G/A, Pro422Leu) in the scribbled planar cell polarity protein (SCRIB) gene and the other SNP is rs17576 (A/G, Gln279Arg) in the matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) gene. Subsequently, these SNPs were genotyped in DNA samples of 150 non-immunized TBE patients with different clinical forms of the disease from two cities and 228 control randomly selected samples from the same populations. There were no statistically significant differences in genotype and allele frequencies between the case and control groups for rs6558394. However, the frequency of the rs17576 G allele was significantly higher in TBE patients with severe CNS diseases such as meningo-encephalitis (43.5%) when compared with TBE patients with milder meningitis (26.3%; P = 0.01), as well as with the population control group (32.5%; P = 0.042). The results suggest that the MMP9 gene may affect genetic predisposition to TBE in a Russian population.

Clinical outcome and cerebrospinal fluid profiles in patients with tick-borne encephalitis and prior vaccination history.

BACKGROUND: Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is endemic in southern and eastern districts of Germany. Approximately 10-14% of the infected individuals suffer from long-term disability and in 1.5-3.6% the course is fatal. Two well-tolerated vaccines are available, which provide high protection and which have been confirmed in several field studies. Here we investigate clinical course, long-term outcome and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) characteristics of TBE cases with a prior history of any vaccination as well as real vaccination breakthrough (VBT). METHODS: A case series of 11 patients with a prior history of vaccination, part of a recently published lager cohort of 111 TBE cases. Evaluation included clinical data, degree of disability (modified RANKIN scale, mRS) and analysis of CSF and serum samples. Furthermore, metadata for extended analysis on clinical outcome of TBE with VBT were analysed. RESULTS: One patient had a clear VBT and ten of them had irregular vaccinations schedules (IVS). Infection severity did not differ in patients with IVS as compared to a non-vaccinated control cohort (median mRS: both 3.0) but these patients showed a stronger cellular immune response as measured by CSF pleocytosis (IVS, 205 cells/µL versus non-vaccinated control, 114 cell/µL, P < 0.05) and by differential pattern of CSF (intrathecal) immunoglobulin synthesis. However, shift analysis of VBT metadata using linear-by-linear association revealed a more serious course of TBE in patients with VBT than in a non-vaccinated control cohort (χ2 = 9.95, P = 0.002). Furthermore, ordinal logistic regression analysis showed that VBT patients had an age-corrected, 2.65 fold (CI: 1.110-6.328; χ2 = 4.813; p = 0.028) significant higher risk to suffer from moderate or severe infections, respectively. CONCLUSION: A history of IVS surprisingly seems to have no impact on the clinical course of TBE but may leave marks in the specific brain immune response. VBT patients, however, carry an age-independent, significant risk to experience a severe infection.

Peromyscus leucopus mouse brain transcriptome response to Powassan virus infection.

Powassan virus (POWV) is a tick-borne Flavivirus responsible for life-threatening encephalitis in North America and some regions of Russia. The ticks that have been reported to transmit the virus belong to the Ixodes species, and they feed on small-to-medium-sized mammals, such as Peromyscus leucopus mice, skunks, and woodchucks. We previously developed a P. leucopus mouse model of POWV infection, and the model is characterized by a lack of clinical signs of disease following intraperitoneal or intracranial inoculation. However, intracranial inoculation results in mild subclinical encephalitis from 5 days post infection (dpi), but the encephalitis resolves by 28 dpi. We used RNA sequencing to profile the P. leucopus mouse brain transcriptome at different time points after intracranial challenge with POWV. At 24 h post infection, 42 genes were significantly differentially expressed and the number peaked to 232 at 7 dpi before declining to 31 at 28 dpi. Using Ingenuity Pathway Analysis, we determined that the genes that were significantly expressed from 1 to 15 dpi were mainly associated with interferon signaling. As a result, many interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) were upregulated. Some of the ISGs include an array of TRIMs (genes encoding tripartite motif proteins). These results will be useful for the identification of POWV restriction factors.

Analysis of the relationship between single nucleotide polymorphism of the CD209, IL-10, IL-28 and CCR5 D32 genes with the human predisposition to developing tick-borne encephalitis.

<b>Introduction: </b>It is known that in the pathogenesis of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) various molecules play a significant role. The most prominent factors include IL-10, IL-28B, CD-209 and CCR5. It is reasonable to search for genetic predispositions to the development of various clinical forms of TBE related to the genetic variation of IL-10, IL-28B, CD-209 and CCR5. In this study we aimed to search for the relationship between single nucleotide polymorphism in the promoter region of the CD209, IL-10, IL-28 and 32 base pair deletion in CCR5 coding region (Δ 32) with the human predisposition to development of various clinical presentations of TBE. We tried to assess the relation between the presence of particular alleles and genotypes with laboratory and clinical parameters. <b>Material/Methods </b>59 patients with TBE and 57 people, bitten by a tick who never developed TBE (Polish cohort), were included in the study. To assess the distribution of single nucleotide polymorphisms, TaqMan SNP genotyping assays were used for IL10: rs1800872 and rs1800896, for CD 209 rs4804803 and rs2287886, rs12979860 for IL 28B SNPs according to the manufacturer's protocol using real-time PCR technology on the StepOne thermal cycler. <b>Results </b>Comparison between TBE patients and CG showed that in SNP rs2287886 CD 209 AG heterozygotes were more frequent in the TBE group, while homozygotes GG were more frequent in the CG group. <b>Conclusions </b> SNP rs2287886 CD 209 AG heterozygotes predispose humans to develop TBE. Single nucleotide polymorphism in the promoter region of the CD209, IL-10, IL-28 and CCR5 D32 genes does not correlate with the severity of TBE.