Four ways blue foods can help achieve food system ambitions across nations.

Blue foods, sourced in aquatic environments, are important for the economies, livelihoods, nutritional security and cultures of people in many nations. They are often nutrient rich1, generate lower emissions and impacts on land and water than many terrestrial meats2, and contribute to the health3, wellbeing and livelihoods of many rural communities4. The Blue Food Assessment recently evaluated nutritional, environmental, economic and justice dimensions of blue foods globally. Here we integrate these findings and translate them into four policy objectives to help realize the contributions that blue foods can make to national food systems around the world: ensuring supplies of critical nutrients, providing healthy alternatives to terrestrial meat, reducing dietary environmental footprints and safeguarding blue food contributions to nutrition, just economies and livelihoods under a changing climate. To account for how context-specific environmental, socio-economic and cultural aspects affect this contribution, we assess the relevance of each policy objective for individual countries, and examine associated co-benefits and trade-offs at national and international scales. We find that in many African and South American nations, facilitating consumption of culturally relevant blue food, especially among nutritionally vulnerable population segments, could address vitamin B12 and omega-3 deficiencies. Meanwhile, in many global North nations, cardiovascular disease rates and large greenhouse gas footprints from ruminant meat intake could be lowered through moderate consumption of seafood with low environmental impact. The analytical framework we provide also identifies countries with high future risk, for whom climate adaptation of blue food systems will be particularly important. Overall the framework helps decision makers to assess the blue food policy objectives most relevant to their geographies, and to compare and contrast the benefits and trade-offs associated with pursuing these objectives.

Ageing threatens sustainability of smallholder farming in China.

Rapid demographic ageing substantially affects socioeconomic development1-4 and presents considerable challenges for food security and agricultural sustainability5-8, which have so far not been well understood. Here, by using data from more than 15,000 rural households with crops but no livestock across China, we show that rural population ageing reduced farm size by 4% through transferring cropland ownership and land abandonment (approximately 4 million hectares) in 2019, taking the population age structure in 1990 as a benchmark. These changes led to a reduction of agricultural inputs, including chemical fertilizers, manure and machinery, which decreased agricultural output and labour productivity by 5% and 4%, respectively, further lowering farmers' income by 15%. Meanwhile, fertilizer loss increased by 3%, resulting in higher pollutant emissions to the environment. In new farming models, such as cooperative farming, farms tend to be larger and operated by younger farmers, who have a higher average education level, hence improving agricultural management. By encouraging the transition to new farming models, the negative consequences of ageing can be reversed. Agricultural input, farm size and farmer's income would grow by approximately 14%, 20% and 26%, respectively, and fertilizer loss would reduce by 4% in 2100 compared with that in 2020. This suggests that management of rural ageing will contribute to a comprehensive transformation of smallholder farming to sustainable agriculture in China.

Rice quality and its impacts on food security and sustainability in Bangladesh.

Rice market efficiency is important for food security in countries where rice is a staple. We assess the impact of rice quality on rice prices, food security, and environmental sustainability in Bangladesh. We find that while price varies as expected for most quality attributes, it is unaffected by a broken percentage below 24.9 percent. This reveals a potential inefficiency, considering the average 5 percent broken rate observed in the market. An increase in the broken rate of milled rice within the limits supported by our findings can, ceteris paribus, increase rice rations by 4.66 million a year, or conversely, yield the current number of rice rations using 170.79 thousand fewer hectares and cutting emissions by 1.48 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent. Thus, producing rice based on quality assessment can improve food security and its sustainability.

Impact of stock health on fish prices: Evaluation and implications for food accessibility.

The continuous rise of the world's population has made food security a major point of the global agenda, with fisheries providing a key source of nutrition, especially in developing countries. Ensuring their health is key to maintain the availability of the resource, but its effect over accessibility is yet unclear. In this paper, we discuss the relevance of stock health for ensuring the price accessibility of the resource. A Least Square Dummy Variable panel model is proposed for bluefin tuna prices, with a biological explanatory component, and dummy variables reflecting changes in fishing trends. Both have proven to be significant to explain annual price variations, with improvements in stock health achieving price reductions.

Food Security, Conflict, and COVID-19: Perspective from Afghanistan.

Afghanistan, a country challenged by war and conflicts, has been in a state of turmoil for several years. The prolonged suffering has brought many challenges to the country's inhabitants. Among these, food security is one important cause for concern. Food security occurs when people continuously have physical and economic access to adequate, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary requirements and food preferences for a functional and healthy life. Amid the pandemic, Afghanistan has witnessed a large increase in food shortages due to its dependence on neighboring countries. In light of current circumstances, food insecurity, coupled with political instability and the third wave of the COVID-19, have made it extremely hard for people to access daily provisions. Hence, people are left to navigate the COVID-19 pandemic with economic recession and poverty as the backdrop of the other health crises. To mitigate food security, international attempts are the required at this critical juncture. The aim of this article is to understand the causes leading to food insecurity and its implications in Afghanistan and to propose solutions that will improve the overall food security at the policy and implementation levels.

Trade vulnerability assessment in the grain-importing countries: A case study of China.

Since the 2008 global food crisis, food security vulnerability has been a prominent topic in the food policy debate. However, vulnerability is inherently difficult to conceptualize and is more challenging to operationalize and measure. This study constructs a mathematical model and takes China as a case study to measure the vulnerability and sensitivity of China with its partners in the international grain trade. The results show that 1) the degree of interdependence between China and its grain trading partners is asymmetric, which generates trade vulnerability or economic power; 2) the vulnerability of China's food trade shows a high spatiotemporal heterogeneity among countries: the higher vulnerability zones are concentrated in North America and Northeast Asia, and the scope of the higher vulnerability zones tends to expand; 3) Our results also reveal that China also has different sensitivities to fluctuations in grain markets from different countries, and the higher sensitive zones of the grain trade in China are mainly distributed in America, Europe, and Oceania. The main contribution of this paper is the development of a methodology for food trade vulnerability assessment and examines the influence of international food trade on food security in importing countries, measured using the vulnerability index and sensitivity index. Nevertheless, the conclusions of this study can be considered preliminary, and there remains great potential for future studies to deepen and broaden our analyses further.

Global relationships between crop diversity and nutritional stability.

Nutritional stability - a food system's capacity to provide sufficient nutrients despite disturbance - is an important, yet challenging to measure outcome of diversified agriculture. Using 55 years of data across 184 countries, we assemble 22,000 bipartite crop-nutrient networks to quantify nutritional stability by simulating crop and nutrient loss in a country, and assess its relationship to crop diversity across regions, over time and between imports versus in country production. We find a positive, saturating relationship between crop diversity and nutritional stability across countries, but also show that over time nutritional stability remained stagnant or decreased in all regions except Asia. These results are attributable to diminishing returns on crop diversity, with recent gains in crop diversity among crops with fewer nutrients, or with nutrients already in a country's food system. Finally, imports are positively associated with crop diversity and nutritional stability, indicating that many countries' nutritional stability is market exposed.

Food Security Status among U.S. Older Adults: Functional Limitations Matter.

This study aimed to assess the relationship between food security and health outcomes among older adults (age 65+) in the U.S. We used a pooled sample (2011-2015, N = 37,292) from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) and ordered logit models to assess characteristics associated with food security including health conditions (diabetes and hypertension) and functional activity limitations. We estimated that 1.3 million individuals aged 65+ in the U.S. had low/very low food security. Having at least one functional limitation (OR = 1.717, 95% CI = 1.436, 2.054) was significantly associated with low/very low food security. Having fair or poor health status (OR = 3.315, 95% CI = 2.938, 3.739) was also a significant factor for food security among older adults, while having health insurance coverage (OR = 0.467, 95% CI = 0.341, 0.64) was negatively associated with food insecurity. Demographics and socioeconomic characteristics were significantly related to food insecurity among seniors. Seniors with functional limitations and poor health status are at risk for food insecurity. Interventions at the clinical site of care may be useful in addressing food security issues for older adults.

Impact of COVID-19 on vegetable supply chain and food security: Empirical evidence from Bangladesh.

In Bangladesh, the COVID-19 pandemic is likely to have substantial effects on the livelihood of people, but smallholder vegetables growers will be even more affected because of the perishability nature of the product. The first case of COVID-19 was confirmed in Bangladesh on 8th March, 2020 and consequently the country went into lockdown on 26 March, 2020. This study has made a survey of vegetables farmers through a mobile phone to understand the impact of COVID-19 on vegetables supply chain, gross margin and the future production plan of the growers. In Bangladesh, the lockdown has disrupted the food supply chain and increases the likelihood of food insecurity. Lockdown has impeded vegetable farmers' access to markets, thus limiting their productive and sales capacities. The price of yield has dropped by more than half resulting in huge loss for vegetable growers. The loss incurred by the farmers for producing Brinjal, Cucumber, Pointed gourd, Yardlong beans and Bottle gourd are BDT 4900, BDT 10900, BDT 57400, BDT 52500 and BDT 18500 per acre respectively as a result of COVID-19. The decreased income increases farmers' likelihood of vulnerability and food insecurity and poses a challenge to continued produce. 'Cash support' is more important than 'food support' in order to keep vegetable farmers in farming, to ensure a ready supply of necessary low-cost resources, and to help fight against the upcoming food shortage.

A Qualitative Exploration of Predominantly White Non-Hispanic Tennessee WIC Participants' Food Retail and WIC Clinic Experiences During COVID-19.

BACKGROUND: The novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has widened many existing nutrition disparities. In response, federal nutrition assistance programs have introduced flexibility waivers in programs, including the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), to rapidly respond to support the nutritional health status of income-eligible participants during COVID-19. Waivers were approved that permitted flexibilities in the WIC food package, WIC vendor guidelines, and WIC clinic experience. The impact of these waivers on WIC participants' retail and clinic experiences remains unknown. OBJECTIVES: Our aims were to understand the experiences of WIC participants in food retail settings and with WIC clinics during the COVID-19 pandemic and to explore WIC participants' perceptions of the impact of COVID-19 on their family's overall health, well-being, and daily lives. DESIGN: We conducted semi-structured phone interviews between April 30 and May 7, 2020. PARTICIPANTS/SETTING: Participants were 24 adults in WIC-enrolled families residing in Tennessee. ANALYSIS: Using grounded theory as the analytical framework, 2 coders completed an iterative, data-driven analytic process within NVivo, version 12. Hierarchical maps, coding matrices, and concept maps were used to aid direct content analysis for theme detection. RESULTS: Five primary themes emerged, including shopping barriers (existing compounded with new), coping strategies, impact on mental and emotional health, social comparison, and unintended consequences of COVID-19 on WIC families. CONCLUSIONS: COVID-19 created additional barriers to food security among WIC families and negatively affected their health and well-being. To meet the needs of this vulnerable population during and beyond the pandemic, the carryover of WIC flexibilities (ie, physical presence and food package substitution waivers) after COVID-19 may improve the ease of overall program participation.

Impact of transnational land acquisitions on local food security and dietary diversity.

Foreign investors have acquired approximately 90 million hectares of land for agriculture over the past two decades. The effects of these investments on local food security remain unknown. While additional cropland and intensified agriculture could potentially increase crop production, preferential targeting of prime agricultural land and transitions toward export-bound crops might affect local access to nutritious foods. We test these hypotheses in a global systematic analysis of the food security implications of existing land concessions. We combine agricultural, remote sensing, and household survey data (available in 11 sub-Saharan African countries) with georeferenced information on 160 land acquisitions in 39 countries. We find that the intended changes in cultivated crop types generally imply transitions toward energy-rich, but nutrient-poor, crops that are predominantly destined for export markets. Specific impacts on food production and access vary substantially across regions. Deals likely have little effect on food security in eastern Europe and Latin America, where they predominantly occur within agricultural areas with current export-oriented crops, and where agriculture would have both expanded and intensified regardless of the land deals. This contrasts with Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, where deals are associated with both an expansion and intensification (in Asia) of crop production. Deals in these regions also shift production away from local staples and coincide with a gradually decreasing dietary diversity among the surveyed households in sub-Saharan Africa. Together, these findings point to a paradox, where land deals can simultaneously increase crop production and threaten local food security.

Food Security, Financial Resources, and Mental Health: Evidence during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

COVID-19 has negatively impacted many households' financial well-being, food security, and mental health status. This paper investigates the role financial resources play in understanding the relationship between food security and mental health among U.S. households using data from a survey in June 2020. Results show job loss and savings draw down to pay for household bills had a significant relationship with both lower food security and greater numbers of poor mental health days during the pandemic.

Measuring the Effects of a Demonstration to Reduce Childhood Food Insecurity: A Randomized Controlled Trial of the Nevada Healthy, Hunger Free Kids Project.

BACKGROUND: To reduce childhood hunger, the US Department of Agriculture funded a set of demonstration projects, including the Nevada Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids (HHFK) project. OBJECTIVE: The study objective was to test whether the Nevada HHFK project reduced child food insecurity (FI-C) among low-income households with young children. DESIGN: Households were randomly assigned to treatment and control groups, with outcomes measured using household surveys and administrative data. Survey data were collected at baseline (n=3,088) and follow-up (n=2,074) 8 to 12 months into the project. PARTICIPANTS/SETTING: Eligible households in Las Vegas, NV, had children under age 5 years, received Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefits, and had incomes below 75% of the federal poverty level. INTERVENTION: Between June 2016 and May 2017, treatment households on SNAP received an additional $40 in monthly SNAP benefits per child under age 5 years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Key outcomes included FI-C (primary), food security among adults and households, and food expenditures (secondary). STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Differences between the treatment and control groups were estimated by a logistic regression model and controlling for baseline characteristics. Analyses were also performed on socioeconomic subgroups. RESULTS: The Nevada HHFK project did not reduce FI-C (treatment=31.2%, control=30.6%; P=0.620), very low food security among children (P=0.915), or food insecurity among adults (P=0.925). The project increased households' monthly food expenditures (including SNAP and out-of-pocket food purchases) by $23 (P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: A demonstration project to reduce FI-C by increasing SNAP benefits to Las Vegas households with young children and very low income did not reduce FI-C or other food-insecurity measures. This finding runs counter to prior research showing that SNAP and similar forms of food assistance have reduced food insecurity. This project was implemented during a period of substantial economic growth in Las Vegas. Future research should explore the role of the economic context, children's ages, and household income in determining how increases in SNAP benefits affect food insecurity. CLINICALTRIALS. GOV IDENTIFIER: NCT04253743 (http://www.clinicaltrials.gov) FUNDING/SUPPORT: This article is published as part of a supplement supported by the US Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service.

A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial of a Home-Delivered Food Box on Food Security in Chickasaw Nation.

BACKGROUND: The 2010 Child Nutrition reauthorization called for the independent evaluation of innovative strategies to reduce the risk of childhood hunger or improve the food security status of households with children. OBJECTIVE: The research question was whether the Packed Promise intervention reduces child food insecurity (FI-C) among low-income households with children. DESIGN: This study was a cluster randomized controlled trial of 40 school districts and 4,750 eligible, consented households within treatment and control schools. PARTICIPANTS/SETTING: Data were collected at baseline (n = 2,859) and 2 follow-ups (n = 2,852; n = 2,790) from households with children eligible for free school meals in participating schools in 12 rural counties within the Chickasaw Nation territory in south central Oklahoma in 2016 to 2018. INTERVENTION: Each month of the 25-month intervention, for each eligible child, enrolled households could choose from 5 types of food boxes that contained shelf-stable, nutritious foods ($38 food value) and a $15 check for purchasing fruits and vegetables. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome was FI-C. Other outcomes included household and adult food security, very low food security among children, and food expenditures. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Differences between the treatment and control groups were estimated by a regression model controlling for baseline characteristics. RESULTS: The Packed Promise project did not significantly reduce FI-C at 12 months (29.3% prevalence in the treatment group compared with 30.1% in the control group; P = 0.123) or at 18 months (28.2% vs 28.7%; P = 0.276), but reduced food insecurity for adults by 3 percentage points at 12 months (P = 0.002) but not at 18 months (P = 0.354). The intervention led to a $27 and a $16 decline in median household monthly out-of-pocket food expenditures at 12 and 18 months, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: An innovative intervention successfully delivered nutritious food boxes to low-income households with children in rural Oklahoma, but did not significantly reduce FI-C. Improving economic conditions in the demonstration area and participation in other nutrition assistance programs among treatment and control groups might explain the lack of impact.ClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT04316819 (http://www.clinicaltrials.gov). FUNDING/SUPPORT: This article is published as part of a supplement supported by the US Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service.

A Randomized Controlled Trial Measuring Effects of Extra Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) Benefits on Child Food Security in Low-Income Families in Rural Kentucky.

BACKGROUND: To reduce childhood hunger, the US Department of Agriculture funded several innovative demonstration projects, including the Kentucky Ticket to Healthy Food project. OBJECTIVE: The study tested the hypothesis that Ticket to Healthy Food would reduce child food insecurity (FI-C) among rural, low-income households. DESIGN: The study used a randomized controlled trial in which households were randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. Outcomes were measured using household surveys and administrative data. Survey data were collected at baseline (n=2,202) and follow-up (n=1,639) 8 to 11 months into the project. PARTICIPANTS/SETTING: Households in 17 counties in southeastern Kentucky that had at least 1 child younger than 18 years and received a Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefit amount less than the maximum at baseline. INTERVENTION: Between January 2017 and March 2018, treatment households on SNAP received additional monthly benefits ranging from $1 to $122 based on distance to grocery store and earned income. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Key outcomes included FI-C (primary), food insecurity among adults and households, and food expenditures (secondary). STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Logistic and linear regression models were used to estimate differences between the treatment and control groups, controlling for baseline characteristics. Socioeconomic subgroups were also analyzed. RESULTS: The Kentucky Ticket to Healthy Food project did not reduce the primary outcome, FI-C (treatment=37.1%, control=35.2%; P=0.812), or secondary outcomes of very low food security among children (treatment=3.7%, control=4.4%; P=0.204) or food insecurity among adults (treatment=53.9%, control=53.0%; P=0.654). The project increased households' monthly food spending by $20 (P=0.030) and led more households to report that monthly benefits lasted at least 3 weeks (treatment=65%, control=56%; P=0.009). CONCLUSION: A demonstration project to reduce FI-C by raising SNAP benefits for Kentucky households with children did not reduce FI-C or other food insecurity measures. Future research should explore the effect of different increases in SNAP benefits and collect repeated measures of FI-C to assess whether intervention effects change over time. FUNDING/SUPPORT: This article is published as part of a supplement supported by the US Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service.