Do the effects last? A comparison between internal and external focus of attention instructions on golf putting accuracy over multiple days.

Background: The role of attentional focus is a well-explored topic in exercise sciences. Studies generally indicate that external focus (EF) enhances motor performance and learning compared with internal focus (IF). However, most studies only included one or two experimental days which limits participants' exposure to the focus conditions. This raises the question of whether the superiority of EF varies over time. Methods: Accordingly, in this pre-registered within-subject study, we examined the effects of focus instructions on golf-putting performance over four days, with 48-72 h between them. On each day, participants performed 15 putts under three instructional conditions: (1) EF, (2) IF, and (3) control, in a randomized and counterbalanced order. Results: We observed trivial differences in performance between conditions but considerable improvements from day 1 to day 4. When using an exploratory analysis, we found that participants performed better under EF and control conditions compared with the IF condition on day 1, but not on subsequent days. Conclusions: Since IF instructions are more commonly used in practice, we speculate that the two other focus conditions were experienced as more novel, potentially accounting for their superiority on Day 1. Nevertheless, our results question the significance of employing EF to enhance performance.

The Mental Game of Golf: Understanding Relationships Between Self-Efficacy, Fear of Failure, Competitive State Anxiety, and Flow.

Our purpose in this study was to investigate the relationship between self-efficacy, fear of failure, competitive state anxiety, and flow among elite golfers. We surveyed 375 elite golfers (N = 375; male = 187, female = 188) who were registered with the Korean Sports and Olympic Committee, and we analyzed their survey responses using descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis, correlation analysis, and structural equation modelling. As expected, we found golf self-efficacy (GSE) to be significantly related to fear of failure (FOF). We also found FOF and competitive state anxiety (CSA) significantly related to flow. Finally, we verified a suspected hierarchical or mediating effect in these relationships such that we verified predictive relationships of flow as follows: GSE→FOF→CSA→Flow. These golfers' self-efficacy had a buffering effect of lowering their FOF and CSA in the pathway toward flow. A suggested implication of these findings is that to enhance a golfer's performance by minimizing interfering psychological factors, it is essential to boost their self-efficacy.

Practices and perceptions of strength and conditioning training in female golf: A cross-sectional survey study of high-level amateur players.

This study aims to ascertain an in-depth understanding of current practices and perceptions of S&C training in high-level amateur female golfers. A cross-sectional, explorative survey study was constructed which asked questions relating to four key areas: i) general participant information, ii) current strength and conditioning (S&C) practices, iii) the perceived influence of S&C training on golf performance, and iv) knowledge and awareness of S&C. Results showed that the majority of female players had participated in some form of S&C training in the past, with the majority believing that clubhead speed and carry distance were the primary golfing metrics which could be positively impacted. More specifically, 91-97% of the players "Strongly agreed" or "Agreed" that the key physical characteristics for golf were strength and power for the lower and upper body, and flexibility. Interestingly, 58% of the players believed that S&C training should mimic the movement of the golf swing, which based off current evidence, is not how drive metrics and ultimately shots gained, can be maximised. This survey study provides useful information relating to the practices and perceptions of S&C training in high-level female amateur players and areas where education may be able to further advance player understanding of physical preparation.

Advancing a grounded theory of parental support in competitive girls' golf.

Parental support in youth sport has been associated with positive athlete outcomes, such as sport enjoyment and continued participation. Although research has demonstrated the significant and influential role parents fulfil in the youth sport context, there remains a dearth of theoretical frameworks detailing parental support in youth sport and an absence of empirical research examining parental support across athlete development stages and sports. The present study sought to examine athletes' perceptions of parental support, with a view to advancing a grounded theory of parental support in youth golf. Fourteen online synchronous focus groups were conducted with an international sample (Australia, Canada, England, Finland, Ireland, New Zealand, Scotland) of 61 girls, in the specialising (n = 27) and investment stages (n = 34) of athlete development. Data were analysed in three phases: open-coding, axial coding, and theoretical integration. The substantive grounded theory is constructed on the core category of 'Individual Parental Support Preferences'. This core category is underpinned by four sub-categories of parental support which were evident across development stages: instrumental, informational, emotional, and autonomy support, and is influenced by a host of athlete (e.g., athletes' performance), parent (e.g., parents' knowledge), and contextual characteristics (e.g., location). Unconditional parental support is an important aspect of emotional support, however the concept of adopting a person-first approach to sport parenting is novel. These results provide a rich and novel insight of parental support in girls' golf, advancing a grounded theoretical understanding of parental support mechanisms in a youth sport context.

The effects of three different types of macronutrient feedings on golf performance and levels of fatigue and alertness.

Background: No study has evaluated the effect of macronutrient feedings on golf performance. Aim: Determine the effect of feedings during simulated golf game using a randomized cross-over study design. Methods: Male participants (n = 6, USGA handicap index 8.5 ± 6.72) played three standardized nine-hole rounds, consuming 30 g of carbohydrate, 15 g + 15 g protein and carbohydrate, or a zero-calorie control. Measurements of driving, chipping, and putting distance and accuracy were taken, as well as perceived levels of fatigue and alertness. Results: No relevant differences (P > 0.05) were seen in golf performance or alertness, but self-reported fatigue differed between conditions (P = 0.02), with scores of 2.5 (0.8 to 3.6) for the combination of carbohydrate and protein, 3.0 (1.5 to 4.3) for carbohydrate, and 4.0 (2.9 to 6.5) for the control, with higher levels indicating more fatigue. Conclusion: Macronutrient feedings led to a significantly lower level of self-reported fatigue without affecting golf performance and alertness compared to a control.

Alcohol Use as a Function of Physical Activity and Golfing Motives in a National Sample of United States Golfers.

Alcohol and physical inactivity are risk factors for a variety of cancer types. However, alcohol use often co-occurs with physical activity (PA), which could mitigate the cancer-prevention benefits of PA. Alcohol is integrated into the culture of one of the most popular physical activities for adults in the United States (U.S.), golf. This study examined how alcohol use was associated with total PA, golf-specific PA, and motives for golfing in a national sample of golfers in the U.S. Adult golfers (n = 338; 51% male, 81% White, 46 ± 14.4 years) self-reported alcohol use, golfing behavior and motives, and PA. Most (84%) golfers consumed alcohol, averaging 7.91 servings/week. Golf participation, including days/week, holes/week, and practice hours/week, was not associated with alcohol use. Golfers with stronger social motives were 60% more likely to consume alcohol. Weekly walking (incident risk ratio (IRR) = 7.30), moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA; IRR = 5.04), and total PA (IRR = 4.14) were associated with more alcohol servings/week. Golfers' alcohol use may be higher than the general adult population in the U.S. and contributes 775 extra kilocalories/week, a surplus that may offset PA-related energy expenditure and cancer-protective effects. Alcohol use interventions targeting golfers may facilitate weight loss and reduce cancer risk, especially for golfers motivated by social status.

Ebbinghaus visual illusion: no robust influence on novice golf-putting performance.

Do visual illusions reliably improve sports performance? To address this issue, we used procedures inspired by Witt et al. (Psychol Sci 23:397-399, 2012) seminal study, which reported that putting on a miniature golf course was positively influenced by an increase in apparent hole size induced by the Ebbinghaus visual illusion. Because Witt et al.'s motor task-putting golf balls toward a hole from the distance of 3.5 m-was impossible for participants who were novices in golf (Experiment 1a), we decided to shorten the putting distance (i.e., 2 m instead of 3.5 m) in Experiment 1b. Otherwise, this second experiment closely followed every other aspects of Witt et al.'s procedure (i.e., one small or one standard golf hole surrounded by a ring of small or large circles). However, this attempt to replicate Witt et al.'s findings failed: the Ebbinghaus illusion significantly influenced neither hole perception nor putting performance. In two subsequent experiments, we encouraged the emergence of the effect of the illusion by simultaneously presenting both versions of the illusion on the mat. This major adaptation successfully modified the perceived size of the hole but had no impact on putting performance (Experiment 2), even when the putting task was made easier by shortening the putting distance to only 1 m (Experiment 3). In the absence of detectable effects of the illusion on putting performance, we conclude that the effects of visual illusions on novice sports performance do not represent a robust phenomenon.

Sports science for golf: A survey of high-skilled golfers' "perceptions" and "practices".

Despite a growing body of evidence on the positive impact of sports science for golf, there is still a paucity of research investigating the "perceptions" and "practices" of high-skilled golfers. Professional Golfers' Association Assistant Professionals (future-qualified coaches; n = 430) were surveyed on their "perceptions" and "practices" of "sports science", "warm-ups", "cool-downs" and "strength and conditioning" for golf. Participants perceived the discipline of sports science as beneficial to golfers but lacked implementation in coaching settings. Warm-up protocols were also perceived to be beneficial to all aspects of golf performance; however, the duration of tournament-based (37.84 ± 20.05 min), warm-ups was significantly greater (p < 0.001) than practice rounds (26.26 ± 18.63 min) and range sessions (13.00 ± 13.38 min). Education continues to be required to raise the understanding of warm-ups for golf. There were mixed perceptions regarding the benefits of a cool-down, with 62.1% of the high-skilled golfers omitting a cool-down following tournament play and practice. Strength and conditioning was perceived as beneficial, with 78.51% engaging in some form of training throughout the year. Results confirm, however, that certain misconceptions around surveyed sports science practices still exist and it is imperative that education disseminates research findings and validated applied practices to coaches and golfers alike.

Specific types of sports and exercise group participation and socio-psychological health in older people.

Older people who engage in sports and exercise in a group render greater benefits for socio-psychological aspects compared to exercising alone. The aim of this study was to identify the prevalence of specific types of sports and exercise groups and the association with self-rated health, depressive symptoms, and frequency of laughter among community-dwelling older people. We used cross-sectional data from the 2016 Japan Gerontological Evaluation Study and analysed 63,465 males and 68,497 females aged ≥65 years. The top three most popular types among males were golf (11.3%), walking (8.4%), and ground golf (6.3%). Among females, the top three were fitness exercises (13.8%), walking (8.3%), and weight exercises (6.2%). After adjusting for potential confounders, engaging in golf with a group was significantly related with excellent self-rated health (prevalence ratio, PR, 1.31 in male and 1.78 in female), low depressive symptoms (PR, 0.70 and 0.71), and a high frequency of laughter (PR, 1.12 and 1.13). Among females, walking displayed a significant relationship with all three characteristics (PR, 1.23, 0.79, and 1.06, respectively). Golf in older males and walking in older females might be the first choice for an effective programme to spread sports and exercise groups within the older Japanese community.

Self-Controlled Practice to Achieve Neuro-Cognitive Engagement: Underlying Brain Processes to Enhance Cognitive-Motor Learning and Performance.

While self-controlled practice has been shown to be an effective practice methodology, the neuro-cognitive correlates of its effectiveness are unclear. We investigated whether learners participating in self-controlled practice exhibit increased neuro-cognitive engagement compared to externally controlled practice. Two groups (self-controlled and yoked) of 16 participants practiced and performed a golf putting task over 3 days. Working memory engagement, central executive activity, and cortical activation were assessed via electroencephalography as indicators of neuro-cognitive engagement. The self-controlled group exhibited more consistent working memory engagement, and greater central executive activity, compared to the yoked group during practice. Relationships were also observed between neuro-cognitive engagement during self-controlled practice and performance improvement, indicating that self-controlled practice uniquely benefitted from increased neuro-cognitive engagement.

Ironic and overcompensating processes under avoidance instructions in motor tasks: An attention imbalance model with golf-putting evidence.

Thought-suppression research showed, when asked to suppress a given thought (e.g., a white bear), people ironically report thinking more of the suppressed thought. Testing motor performance given avoidance goals (e.g., avoid putting the ball short of the target in golf) represents an interest to transfer thought-suppression findings to motor tasks. However, instead of revealing an ironic process, motor studies showed mixed results, suggesting a coexistence of ironic and overcompensating processes. The present study investigates the coexistence of ironic and overcompensating processes induced by avoidance goals in motor tasks. Adopting a dual-process framework, an attention imbalance model (AIM) was proposed to conceptualize such a coexistence. Four golf-putting experiments were conducted to test the AIM by manipulating the degree of attentional imbalance. Results indicated the factor of attentional imbalance moderates the likelihood between ironic and overcompensating processes in golf putting, and such a moderating effect exists in both between- and within-individual variation of task performance but demands task-specific considerations. In addition, performance feedback confounded the putting performance by reducing the likelihood of overcompensating process. The implications of the AIM are discussed in an extended context of motor performance under avoidance goals and thought suppression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Brief Report: The Utility of a Golf Training Program for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a common neurodevelopmental condition characterized by impairments in communication, social interactions, as well as motor functioning. Additionally, individuals with ASD are at a greater risk for health concerns due in part to a more sedentary lifestyle. Therefore, it may be advantageous to introduce more physical activity or sport-based training into autism therapeutic programs. Here, we introduce and evaluate a 6-week, 12 session golf-training program that integrates the teaching of autism-relevant social and communicative skills into each lesson. The results showed that all 46 participants (M = 11.46, SD = 6.21) improved on at least one outcome measure, and statistically significant increases in all measures (communication skills, social skills, motor skills, and regulatory skills) were detected from pre to post. These preliminary findings highlight the utility of an autism-targeted golf training program for all ages; future studies should seek to replicate this strategy in other settings and using other sports or recreational activities.

The Effect of Gradual Self-Control of Task Difficulty and Feedback on Learning Golf Putting.

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the effect of gradual self-control of task difficulty and feedback on accuracy and movement pattern of the golf putting sport skill. Method: Sixty students were quasi-randomly assigned to four groups under a varying combination of the two factors of task difficulty control (self-controlled or yoked) and feedback control (self-controlled or yoked). The participants in the two groups (dual-factor gradual self-control and self-controlled task difficulty group) that granted control over task difficulty in the acquisition phase were told they could choose any of the pre-set distances from the target. All groups were given 100% feedback in the first half of the acquisition phase, but the participants in the two groups (dual-factor gradual self-control group and self-controlled feedback) that could control their feedback were told that in the second half of the acquisition phase they would be able to ask for feedback when needed. The practice schedule of each member of the dual-factor gradual self-control group was used as a basis to plan the practice of predetermined distances and feedback presentation to the corresponding participants in the yoked conditions. Results: ANOVA with repeated measures showed that the practice method involving gradual self-control of two factors had a positive impact on accuracy and movement pattern of golf putting in the retention and transfer tests compared to other methods (ps < .05). Conclusion: The advantages of self-control practice presumably come from better adjustment of challenge points by the learner in the course of the practice.

Golf as Therapy for Individuals With Mental Health or Substance Use Disorders.

The current study was undertaken to explore the experiences of individuals with mental health problems or substance use when introduced to systematic golf activities. The study examined the perceived impact of golf activities on participants' physical and mental health, social contact, and daily activities, as well as their overall evaluation of involvement in a Golf as Therapy group. This qualitative, cross-sectional study gathered data from 12 individual interviews. Qualitative content analysis based on the information from meaning units, subcategories, categories, and themes determined the interpretation of manifest and latent concepts. The findings revealed a positive influence on health and social well-being in addition to positive changes in daily activities. The main theme that arose from the data was Shaping a New Direction in Life, elaborated by the categories of ameliorated physical fitness, creation of a social meeting place, improved focus and concentration, practical help and support, and reduced mental symptom burden. [Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 57(10), 44-51.].

Directional aiming bias in golf putting.

Johnston, Benton, and Nishida (2003, Last but not least - Golfers may have to overcome a persistent visuospatial illusion. Perception, 32(9), 1151-1154) reported that when standing sideways to hit a golf ball, it becomes very difficult to see the veridical line of putt to the target and it creates a bias to misread the direction to the right of target. The purpose of the study was to determine if this perceptual aiming bias also impacts putting. A group of expert (N = 24) and novice (N = 24) players performed a perception task of aligning a line on the golf ball towards the target hole and an action task of putting a ball to the target hole located 1 m and 4 m away. Novice players showed large perceptual aiming bias and small action aiming bias of putting. Yet, expert players showed neither bias in perceptual aiming nor in putting. This replicates earlier work (van Lier, van der Kamp, & Savelsbergh, 2011 Perception action in golf putting: Skill differences reflect calibration. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 33(3), 349-369) and was explained by the two-visual-pathway hypothesis. Despite the results showing some favorable support for the two-visual-pathway hypothesis, possible limitations are discussed.

Learning a skill with the expectation of teaching it impairs the skill's execution under psychological pressure.

When practicing a motor skill, learners who are expecting to teach it to another person exhibit superior gains in skill execution and declarative knowledge. Since skills acquired with large gains in declarative knowledge are highly susceptible to decrement under psychological pressure, it is possible the advantage of expecting to teach is lost when performing the learned skill under pressure. To test this hypothesis, we had 40 participants practice golf putting with the expectation of teaching (teach group) and 42 participants practice with the expectation of being tested (test group). The next day, all participants performed low- and high-pressure posttests. The teach group outperformed the test group under low pressure but not high pressure, where the teach group's performance declined to that of the test group. Further, the teach group reported using more declarative knowledge during the posttests than the test group, but declarative knowledge use did not mediate the performance decline from low- to high-pressure posttest. Taken together, results suggest expecting to teach benefits skill learning, but this advantage is lost when performing the skill under high pressure. However, whether skill breakdown under high pressure is caused by an increase in declarative knowledge use remains an open question. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

No Improvement on the Learning of Golf Putting By Older Persons With Self-Controlled Knowledge of Performance.

The aim of this study was to verify if older adults would benefit from a self-controlled schedule of knowledge of performance (KP) in the motor skill learning. The study's participants included 22 women and 18 men, with an average age of 68 years (SD = 2.95 years). These were divided into two groups: "Self," in which participants had control over when they received KP and "Yoked," in which participants received KP in a paired manner with the Self group. The learning task was golf putting. Results showed that the groups had similar scores for accuracy and consistency of performance. Results also showed that KP requests were more based on bad trials than good trials. It appears that the important variable for motor learning is not who controls the provision of feedback, but also the older adults' ability to use the information.

"The Thrill of Victory . . . and the Agony of Defeat": Passion and Emotional Reactions to Success and Failure Among Recreational Golfers.

The dualistic model of passion proposes two distinct forms of passion: obsessive (OP) and harmonious (HP). The purpose of this research was to test if emotional reactivity following athletic successes and failures was related to one's levels of HP and OP for sport. The authors recruited recreational golfers (N = 115) to report how they typically felt after they experienced successes and failures on the golf course. Results of multilevel modeling analyses supported the hypotheses and revealed that OP moderated the effects of success and failure on both positive and negative affect: OP was associated with higher levels of positive affect following success, as well as higher levels of negative affect following failure. These results suggest that OP, but not HP, is associated with greater emotional reactivity to the experience of success and failure in sport.

Leveling the playing field: can psychological coping resources reduce the influence of physical and technical skills on athletic performance?

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The present study assessed the extent to which individual differences in psychological coping resources are related to athletic performance; whether they can attenuate the amount of performance variance accounted for by physical/technical skills; and whether coping resources remain significant predictors of performance when physical/technical skill level is statistically controlled. METHODS: Twenty college golf coaches rated the physical/technical skills of 189 men and women varsity golfers on their teams. Athletes completed the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (ACSI-28), with the total (Personal Coping Resources) score serving as a global measure of sport-relevant psychological coping resources. Subsequent performance (stroke average per round) of 105 golfers was assessed over a mean of 12.04 competitive rounds during the remainder of the season. RESULTS: Physical/technical skills and psychological coping resource measures were minimally correlated and both were significant and similarly influential predictors of performance. With psychological resources controlled, performance variance accounted for by physical/technical skills was reduced from 21.2% to 10.6%. With physical/technical skills statistically controlled, psychological coping resources, though reduced from 18.2% to 7.5% of accountable variance, remained a significant predictor of performance. CONCLUSION: Results support the significant role played by psychological coping resources as predictors of athletic performance, together with their ability to "level the field" by reducing the influence of physical/technical talent.