Five thousand years of minimal access surgery: 1850 to 1990: Technological developments.

This is the second of a three-part series that charts the history of minimal access surgery from antiquity to current times. Although rapid developments in laparoscopic and robotic surgery have transformed surgical care over the last 30 years, our predecessors made significant advances in their time which set the principles for modern practice. Part I of this series described how ancient medical practitioners developed simple instruments, from metal or wood, for viewing body cavities. Improvements in the use of metal, glass and lighting allowed for inspection of deeper parts of the body. This second part of the series will show how advances in electrical technology allowed the development of improved lighting for endoscopy and laparoscopy along with the use of electrocautery for a wide range of therapeutic procedures.

Clinical Perspective Concerning Abdominal Entry Techniques.

OBJECTIVE: Entry into the abdomen during operative laparoscopy is a source of some controversy regarding the safest and most useful method. The objective of this review is to describe, compare, and contrast the most popular entry techniques. DATA SOURCES: Data were collected from the historical starting point until present day from English language journal articles and book chapters. METHODS OF STUDY SELECTION: Descriptive accounts dating back to the start of laparoscopy in the 1970s and spanning to present day well-designed randomized controlled trials and Cochrane reviews were compiled to evaluate the evidence for the effectiveness and safety of abdominal entry techniques. TABULATION, INTEGRATION, AND RESULTS: The most common sites of entry are the umbilicus and the left upper quadrant. Between the Veress needle, direct trocar insertion, and open entry there is no high-quality evidence to suggest that any of these offers a universal safety advantage. The Veress needle is still the most used among gynecologists and facilitates primary trocar placement. Direct trocar entry under laparoscopic visualization may be underused, is faster, and may result in fewer failed entries. Open (Hasson) entry can be more technically challenging, but may be best for patients with suspected intra-abdominal adhesions. CONCLUSION: Surgeon comfort is critical in choosing the entry site, method, and equipment. Surgeon familiarity with entry-failure troubleshooting, possible complications, and management is essential because major entry complications are rare in modern laparoscopy but critical because the essential steps of recognition and management can be lifesaving.

Five thousand years of minimal access surgery: 3000BC to 1850: early instruments for viewing body cavities.

Surgeons and their patients recognise that one of the major advances in surgical technique over the last 20 years has been the growth of minimal access surgery by means of laparoscopic and robotic approaches. Partnerships with industry have facilitated the development of advanced technical instruments, light sources, recording devices and optics which are almost out of date by the time they are introduced to surgical practice. However, lest we think that technological innovation is entirely a modern concept, we should remember that our predecessors were masters of their craft and able to apply new technologies to surgical practice. The history of minimal access surgery can be traced back to approximately 5000 years ago and this review aims to remind us of the achievements of historical doctors and engineers, as well as bring more modern developments to wider attention.This review will comprise a three-part series:Part I 3000BC to 1850 Early instruments for viewing body cavitiesPart II 1850 to 1990 Technological developmentsPart III 1990 to present Organisational issues and the rise of the robots.

Laparoscopy & robotics: a historical parallel.

The evolution of robotic platforms has brought up ethical, economic, educational, and clinical applicability issues that refer to the early 1990s, when laparoscopy began its dissemination as a technology that would revolutionize surgery. Introduced in Brazil since 1990, laparoscopy has received a lot of resistance from different sectors, including the medical academy itself. The technique was considered expensive, complex, poorly available and with limited clinical applications. However, in a short time, it was established as the gold standard for the treatment of most diseases in different organ systems and surgical specialties. At this time, similarly to laparoscopy, robotic surgery is expressed as a disruptive technology, determining an important breakdown of paradigms, and moving the wheel of history forward. The author draws a parallel in relation to the use of both technologies in the surgeon's armamentarium. The fear of the "new technology", seen when laparoscopy appeared, is repeated with the advent of robotic surgery. Laparoscopy and robotic surgery, at the same time, imposed new knowledge challenges for surgeons, anesthetists, nurses, engineers - the need to learn again, to develop new skills. The previous experience of implementing laparoscopy should always be remembered and considered, optimizing the current scenario of the robotic platform, in its introduction and dissemination with the surgical community. The advent of the "robotic era" and its evolutionary potential will continue to assist surgeons in their mission to serve their patients with quality and safety.

Total mesorectal excision - 40 years of standard of rectal cancer surgery.

Total mesorectal excision (TME) was first described 40 years ago by Richard Heald. The purpose of this article is to point out importance of this surgical procedure. Starting from first attempts to surgically cure rectal carcinoma in the nineteenth century through Miles' operation at the beginning of the twentieth century results were not satisfactory due to high number of local recurrences after resections for rectal cancer. Progress in surgical technique and knowledge of anatomy and embryology of the rectum led to development of TME. Principle of TME is surprisingly simple: removal of the rectum with complete embryonic space containing lymph nodes which are site of primary dissemination of the disease. Main advantages and drawbacks of TME as well as focus on newer procedures developed from the concept of TME are presented in the form of a review.

Surgical Trends and Time Frame Comparison of Surgical Types of Hysterectomy: A Nationwide, Population-based 15-year Study.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To investigate the surgical trends among different types of hysterectomy (abdominal, vaginal, laparoscopic, and subtotal) over a 15-year period in Taiwan. DESIGN: A retrospective cohort study. SETTING: A population-based National Health Insurance Research Database. PATIENTS: Women undergoing various types of hysterectomy for noncancerous lesions. INTERVENTIONS: Data for this study were extracted from the inpatient expenditures by admissions files of Taiwan's National Health Insurance Research Database from 1998 through 2012 and divided into three 5-year time frames: first (1998-2002), second (2003-2007), and third (2008-2012). The variables included types of hysterectomy, patient age, gynecologist age and sex, hospital accreditation level, and surgical volume. Chi-square and trend tests were used to examine the association between the variables. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: A total of 329 438 patients who underwent various types of hysterectomy were identified; 306 257 were included in the study. During the 15-year period, 45% underwent total abdominal hysterectomy, 41% underwent laparoscopic hysterectomy (LH), 9.8% underwent vaginal hysterectomy, and 4.2% underwent subtotal abdominal hysterectomy. The frequency of LHs increased from 35.9% in the first period to 43.9% in the second period and remained at 44.2% in the third period. During the same time period, there was a decrease in the frequency of total abdominal hysterectomies. Typically, younger patients underwent LHs by gynecologists with large volume surgical practices and medical centers. CONCLUSION: This 15-year study describes an increase of LHs and subtotal abdominal hysterectomies over time and provides evidence of surgical trends and a paradigm shift of hysterectomies. Surgical skills and performance extended from high- to low-surgical volume gynecologists and from medical centers to regional and local hospitals. This shift may have a great influence on patient and health care provider choice of treatment.

Laparoscopy & robotics: a historical parallel / Laparoscopia & robótica: um paralelo histórico

ABSTRACT The evolution of robotic platforms has brought up ethical, economic, educational, and clinical applicability issues that refer to the early 1990s, when laparoscopy began its dissemination as a technology that would revolutionize surgery. Introduced in Brazil since 1990, laparoscopy has received a lot of resistance from different sectors, including the medical academy itself. The technique was considered expensive, complex, poorly available and with limited clinical applications. However, in a short time, it was established as the gold standard for the treatment of most diseases in different organ systems and surgical specialties. At this time, similarly to laparoscopy, robotic surgery is expressed as a disruptive technology, determining an important breakdown of paradigms, and moving the wheel of history forward. The author draws a parallel in relation to the use of both technologies in the surgeon's armamentarium. The fear of the "new technology", seen when laparoscopy appeared, is repeated with the advent of robotic surgery. Laparoscopy and robotic surgery, at the same time, imposed new knowledge challenges for surgeons, anesthetists, nurses, engineers - the need to learn again, to develop new skills. The previous experience of implementing laparoscopy should always be remembered and considered, optimizing the current scenario of the robotic platform, in its introduction and dissemination with the surgical community. The advent of the "robotic era" and its evolutionary potential will continue to assist surgeons in their mission to serve their patients with quality and safety.

RESUMO A evolução das plataformas robóticas tem trazido à discussão questões éticas, econômicas, educacionais e de aplicabilidade clínica que remetem ao início dos anos 1990, quando a videolaparoscopia iniciava a sua disseminação como tecnologia que revolucionaria a cirurgia. Introduzida no Brasil a partir de 1990, a videolaparoscopia recebeu muita resistência por parte de diferentes setores, incluindo a própria academia médica. A técnica foi considerada muito cara, complexa, pouco disponível e com aplicações clínicas limitadas. No entanto, em pouco tempo, se estabeleceu como padrão-ouro para o tratamento de grande parte das doenças em diferentes sistemas orgânicos e especialidades cirúrgicas. Neste momento, de forma semelhante à videolaparoscopia, a cirurgia robótica se expressa como tecnologia disruptiva, determinando importante quebra de paradigmas e movendo adiante a roda da história. O autor traça um paralelo em relação a utilização de ambas tecnologias no armamentário dos cirurgiões. O medo da "nova tecnologia", visto quando do aparecimento da videolaparoscopia, se repete com o advento da cirurgia robótica. Videolaparoscopia e cirurgia robótica, ao seu tempo, impuseram novos desafios de conhecimento para cirurgiões, anestesistas, enfermeiros, engenheiros - necessidade de aprender de novo, desenvolver novas habilidades. A experiencia pregressa da implantação da videolaparoscopia deve ser sempre lembrada e considerada, otimizando o cenário atual da plataforma robótica, na sua introdução e disseminação junto à comunidade cirúrgica. O advento da "era robótica" e seu potencial evolutivo continuarão a auxiliar os cirurgiões em sua missão de atender com qualidade e segurança seus pacientes.

Evolution of the Anterior Approach in Lumbar Spine Fusion.

The anterior approach to lumbar spine fusion, termed anterior lumbar interbody fusion (ALIF), is becoming increasingly popular, with numerous recognized indications, well-defined advantages, and potential complications. From its first theoretical description in 1932 and the first operation published in 1933 to the more recently reported less invasive procedures, an anterior approach to the lumbar spine has many technical variations. Here we describe the evolution of the anterior approach to the lumbar spine, from a hugely invasive transperitoneal route to the current minimally invasive retroperitoneal approach. Many advantages have been advocated for the ALIF approach, and some issues about intraoperative and postoperative complications need to be evaluated in a more specific and homogeneous manner.

Endoscopic foregut surgery and interventions: The future is now. The state-of-the-art and my personal journey.

In this paper, I reviewed the emerging field of endoscopic surgery and present data supporting the contention that endoscopy can now be used to treat many foregut diseases that have been traditionally treated surgically. Within each topic, the content will progress as follows: "lessons learned", "technical considerations" and "future opportunities". Lessons learned will provide a brief background and update on the most current literature. Technical considerations will include my personal experience, including tips and tricks that I have learned over the years. Finally, future opportunities will address current unmet needs and potential new areas of development. The foregut is defined as "the upper part of the embryonic alimentary canal from which the pharynx, esophagus, lung, stomach, liver, pancreas, and part of the duodenum develop". Foregut surgery is well established in treating conditions such as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), achalasia, esophageal diverticula, Barrett's esophagus (BE) and esophageal cancer, stomach cancer, gastric-outlet obstruction, and obesity. Over the past decade, remarkable progress in interventional endoscopy has culminated in the conceptualization and practice of endoscopic foregut surgery for various clinical conditions summarized in this paper. Regarding GERD, there are now several technologies available to effectively treat it and potentially eliminate symptoms, and the need for long-term treatment with proton pump inhibitors. For the first time, fundoplication can be performed without the need for open or laparoscopic surgery. Long-term data going out 5-10 years are now emerging showing extended durability. In respect to achalasia, per-oral endoscopic myotomy (POEM) which was developed in Japan, has become an alternative to the traditional Heller's myotomy. Recent meta-analysis show that POEM may have better results than Heller, but the issue of post-POEM GERD still needs to be addressed. There is now a resurgence of endoscopic treatment of Zenker's diverticula with improved technique (Z-POEM) and equipment; thus, patients are choosing flexible endoscopic treatment as opposed to open or rigid endoscopy options. In regard to BE, endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD) which is well established in Asia, is now becoming more mainstream in the West for the treatment of BE with high grade dysplasia, as well as early esophageal cancer. In combination with all the ablation technologies (radiofrequency ablation, cryotherapy, hybrid argon plasma coagulation), the entire spectrum of Barrett's and related dysplasia and early cancer can be managed predominantly by endoscopy. Importantly, in regard to early gastric cancer and submucosal tumors (SMTs) of the stomach, ESD and full thickness resection (FTR) can excise these lesions en-bloc and endoscopic suturing is now used to close large defects and perforations. For treatment of patients with malignant gastric outlet obstruction (GOO), endoscopic gastro-jejunostomy is now showing better results than enteral stenting. G-POEM is also emerging as a treatment option for patients with gastroparesis. Obesity has become an epidemic in many western countries and is becoming also prevalent in Asia. Endoscopic sleeve gastroplasty (ESG) is now becoming an established treatment option, especially for obese patients with body mass index between 30 and 35. Data show an average weight loss of 16 kg after ESG with long-term data confirming sustainability. Finally, in respect to endo-hepatology, there are many new endoscopic interventions that have been developed for patients with liver disease. Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-guided liver biopsy and EUS-guided portal pressure measurement are exciting new frontiers for the endo-hepatologists.

Development of pediatric minimally invasive surgery in mainland China.

Pediatric laparoscopic surgery has developed rapidly in the past 20 years in mainland China with the help of international collaborative training programs. High-volume laparoscopic workload has enabled Chinese pediatric surgeons to innovate and gain experience within a short span of time. We feel that outcomes are comparable or even in some cases superior to that of open surgery. In this article, based on the Storz Lecture to the 65th BAPS Congress in Liverpool, we share our experience of this rapid development of pediatric laparoscopy. EVIDENCE LEVEL: V.