Estudos de síntese de dendrons dirigidos de NFOH com potencial antichagásico e modelagem molecular do receptor de manose de macrófagos / Studying the synthesis of NFOH targeted dendrons, potentially active in Chagas disease, and the molecular modeling of manose receptor from macrophages

A doença de Chagas, considerada doença extremamente negligenciada, acomete mais de 6 milhões de pessoas ao redor do mundo e mais de 75 milhões de pessoas vivem sob risco da doença. Considerada endêmica em 21 países da América Latina. No Brasil, grassa, sobretudo, na região Norte, especialmente, na região amazônica. Apesar de se constituir em risco global, a doença de Chagas conta com apenas com dois fármacos, o benznidazol e o nifurtimox, que, além de tóxicos, não apresentam eficácia significativa na fase crônica da parasitose. Assim sendo, torna-se imperativa a busca por quimioterápicos mais eficazes, mormente na fase crônica da doença. A introdução de novos fármacos da terapêutica várias fases, consumindo tempo e recursos. No entanto, há processos que permitem a otimização de fármacos já existentes e de compostos bioativos, com vistas à busca de candidatos a fármacos, que, uma vez bem-sucedidos nos ensaios clínicos, são aprovados para uso terapêutico. Entre esses processos, destaca-se a latenciação, forma de aprimoramento de propriedades farmacêuticas, farmacocinéticas e, indiretamente, farmacodinâmicas, que utiliza, em geral, transportadores para a resolução de problemas dessas naturezas. Os transportadores variam de acordo com o problema a ser resolvido e, entre eles, os dendrons e dendrímeros podem ser ressaltados pela sua natureza química, que permite a ligação de várias moléculas de fármacos/compostos bioativos e, também, de grupos diretores para certos compartimentos ou células. Dessa forma, podem-se obter fármacos dirigidos, que se constituem em formas latentes de alta seletividade. Face ao exposto e, estimulados pela busca de novas alternativas terapêuticas para a doença de Chagas, o objetivo deste trabalho foi a obtenção de dendrons dirigidos, por meio de manose, derivados de hidroximetilnitrofural (NFOH). Esse composto foi mostrou-se altamente ativo contra T. cruzi, também na fase crônica NFOH e menos tóxico que o protótipo e o benznidazol. Efetuaram-se estudos para a síntese desses compostos derivados de dendron triazólico, sintetizado através de click chemistry, tendo a manose como grupo diretor para os macrófagos, onde, também, são encontrados os amastigotas de Trypanosoma cruzi. Obtiveram-se alguns intermediários, que foram caracterizados por RMN 1H e 13C. A rota sintética proposta não pôde ser finalizada. Por outro lado, efetuaram-se estudos de modelagem molecular, utilizando-se dinâmica molecular, com o intuito de conhecer como se dá a interação da manose e de polimanosídeos com seu respectivo receptor e como se realiza a liberação do composto bioativo da ligação com o dendron. Anteriormente, procedeu-se à caracterização da biologia estrutural do receptor de manose e de suas estruturas primárias, secundárias e terciárias, com ênfase para o domínio CRD4 o papel do cálcio principal na interação com o monossacarídeo. A movimentação do domínio foi muito pouco diferente nos meios simulados (neutro, ácido, contendo ligantes e contendo o cálcio auxiliar), evidenciado pelo RMSF e estudo de PCA desses sistemas. Foi possível concluir que este domínio não apresenta nenhuma alteração conformacional responsável pela liberação de ligantes em meio lisossômico, e que o cálcio auxiliar e os ligantes não causam impactos na estabilidade conformacional do CRD4. Há necessidade de mais estudos para o conhecimento dos requisitos estruturais envolvidos na da formação do complexo receptor-composto bioativo

Chagas disease, considered an extremely neglected one, affects more than 6 million people all over de world, with more than 75 million people living under its risk, while endemics in 21 countries in Latin America. In Brazil, it propagates, mainly in North region, especially in Amazon region. Although being a global risk, only two drugs, benznidazole and nifurtimox, are currently available for Chagas disease. These drugs are toxic and not significantly efficient against the chronic phase of the disease. Therefore, the search for more active chemotherapeutic agents, mainly against the chronic phase of the parasitosis, is imperative. The introduction of new drugs in the therapeutics involves many phases, consuming time, and money. Notwithstanding, there are processes that allow either drugs or bioactive compounds to be optimized, towards drug candidates. These derivatives, once well-succeeded in the clinical trials, can be approved for therapeutic uses. Among those processes, prodrug design stands out. It is a way to improve the pharmaceutics, pharmacokinetics and, indirectly, pharmacodynamics, properties of drugs/bioactive compounds, which requires adequate carriers, in general, for these problems´ solution. The carriers vary according to the problem to be solved, and, among them, dendrons and dendrimers can be emphasized due to their chemical nature, which allows the link of many molecules/bioactive compounds and of directing groups to specific compartments or cells. Thus, targeted drugs, which are latent forms of drugs/bioactive compounds with high selectivity. In this connection and stimulated by the search for new therapeutic alternatives for Chagas disease, the objective of this work was obtaining hydroxymethylnitrofurazone (NFOH) targeted dendrons, by means of mannose, as directing groups. NFOH is highly active against T. cruzi, even in chronic phase of the disease, and less toxic than the prototype and benznidazole. Studies have been developed to synthesize these compounds with a triazole dendron, planned to be obtained by click chemistry. Mannose was designed to be the directing groups to macrophages, where the T. cruzi amastigotes can also be found. Some intermediaries have been obtained and structurally characterized by 1H and 13C NMR, but the proposed synthetic route could not be finished. On the other hand, molecular modeling studies have been developed, using molecular dynamics, with the aim to know how the interaction of mannose, and also of polymannoside, occur with the specific receptor, and how NFOH is released from its linkage to the dendron. The structural biology characterization, as well as of primary, secondary and tertiary structures of the mannose receptor was previously performed, with emphasis onCRD4 and main calcium role in the interaction of the mannoside. All systems simulated (neutral medium, acid medium, complexes with ligands and auxiliary calcium) showed little movement differences when analyzed by RMSF and PCA calculations. It was possible to conclude that this domain shows no conformational changes involved in ligand releasing in lysosomal environment and its conformation is not altered when in presence of ligands or the auxiliary calcium. Much more studies are needed to the knowledge of the structural requirements to the complex receptor-drug-compound bioactive to the receptor

In vitro susceptibility of Sporothrix spp. to complexes coordinated with Co(II) and cobalt chloride hexahydrate

Abstract Sporothrix spp. are the major dimorphic fungus associated with a type of subcutaneous mycosis, sporotrichosis. The limitation of antifungal availability and the past reports of in vitro resistance of Sporothrix spp. clinical isolates makes it important to search for new compounds with antifungal activities. In this study, we therefore evaluate the in vitro activities of complexes coordinated with Co(II) and cobalt chloride hexahydrate against clinical isolates of Sporothrix spp. Broth microdilution test was performed as per M38-A2 from CLSI (2008) in duplicate for 31 clinical isolates of Sporothrix spp. (27 S. brasiliensis e 04 S. schenckii stricto sensu). The antifungal activities of the complexes coordinated with Co(II) and cobalt chloride hexahydrate were detected at a concentration range of 32-128 µg/mL for all isolates. None of the compounds demonstrated any cytotoxicity (to macrophage cells) at the concentration of 200 µg/mL. The activity against Sporothrix spp. recorded in this study instigate the continuity of experimental studies with Co(II) to search for the mechanisms of antifungal action as well as to evaluate its interaction with the commercial antifungal drugs.

Avaliação in vitro e in vivo do potencial imunomodulador de frações polissacarídicas extraídas do chuchu / In vitro and in vivo evaluation of the immunomodulatory potential of polysaccharide fractions extracted from chayote

Os polissacarídeos não amido constituem importante parcela das fibras dietéticas, e podem ser considerados modificadores de resposta biológica (MRBs), uma vez que são capazes de interagir com o sistema imune, e suas características estruturais estão atreladas aos efeitos biológicos gerados. O potencial imunomodulador dos polissacarídeos do chuchu já foi demonstrado, entretanto, informações sobre suas características estruturais e sua relação com o perfil imunológico são limitadas a ensaios in vitro, não havendo, até o momento, estudos in vivo. Assim, o objetivo do estudo foi avaliar, in vitro e in vivo, o perfil imunomodulador de frações isoladas do polissacarídeo do chuchu. Por meio da filtração tangencial foram obtidas as frações de estudo, SeRI<50 e SeSE<50, respectivamente as frações isoladas do polissacarídeo do chuchu extraídas do resíduo insolúvel e do sobrenadante pós-tratamento enzimático para retirada do amido com peso molecular menor que 50 kDa. A caracterização por meio da determinação da composição monossacarídica e da análise de ligação apontou que ambas as frações são formadas por galacturonanos, arabinanos, arabinogalactanos e glicomananos. A SeRI<50 é menos ramificada e, provavelmente, composta por galactanos, enquanto SeSE<50 é mais ramificada e, provavelmente, composta por galactuglucomananos. Essas frações foram capazes de estimular os macrófagos murinos RAW 264.7 e as células mononucleares do baço, do sangue e do intestino delgado de camundongos Balb/c, sugerindo um perfil de ação mais pró-inflamatório, com base nos efeitos produzidos pelas espécies reativas de oxigênio, citocinas e pelos marcadores de ativação de linfócitos. Ambas as amostras, SeRI<50 e SeSE<50, mostraram ser eficientes em ativar a cascata imunológica, não sendo citotóxicas mesmo com a maior concentração testada no ensaio in vitro

Non-starch polysaccharides are important components of dietary fibers, and they may be considered biological response modifiers (MRBs), as they may interact with the immune system, depending on their structural characteristics. The immunomodulatory potential of chayote polysaccharides has already been demonstrated, however, information on their structural characteristics and their relationship with the immunological profile are limited to in vitro assays, with no reports on in vivo studies. Thus, the objective of the study was to evaluate, in vitro and in vivo, the immunomodulatory profile of polysaccharide from chayote. Through tangential filtration two fractions, SeRI <50 and SeSE <50, were obtained, respectively the fraction isolated from the chayote polysaccharide extracted from the insoluble residue and the fraction from the enzymatic post-treatment supernatant to remove starch, both under molecular weight 50 kDa. The monosaccharide composition and linkage analysis showed that both fractions are formed by galacturonans, arabinans, arabinogalactans and glycomanans. SeRI <50 is less branched and probably composed of galactans, while SeSE <50 is more branched and probably composed of galactuglucomannans. These fractions were able to stimulate murine macrophages RAW 264.7 and mononuclear cells of the spleen, blood and small intestine of Balb / c mice, suggesting a more proinflammatory action profile, based on the reactive oxygen species production, cytokines and lymphocyte activation markers. Both samples, SeRI <50 and SeSE <50, were able to efficiently activate the immunological cascade, not being cytotoxic even at the highest concentration tested in the in vitro assay

Type 2 diabetes mellitus metabolic control correlates with the phenotype of human monocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages.

AIMS: Monocytes and macrophages express cell-surface markers indicative of their inflammatory and activation status. In this study, we investigated whether these markers are affected or correlated in non-obese T2D subjects, or glycemic/metabolic control variables. METHODS: Clinical data was recorded, and peripheral blood drawn from T2D patients (n = 28) and control subjects (n = 27). Isolated monocytes were evaluated by flow cytometry for the expression of CD14, CD16, and the phenotypic markers for the different states of activation spectrum, such as pro-inflammatory (M1) (HLA-DR, CD86), anti-inflammatory/pro-resolving (M2) (CD163, CD206, MERTK, PD-L1) and metabolically-activated (MMe) (CD36, ABCA-1). From a subset of individuals, monocytes-derived macrophages (MDM) were obtained and evaluated for phenotypic markers. A correlation analysis was performed between the clinical variables and the marker expression. RESULTS: The frequency of CD14++CD16- monocytes was lower in T2D patients and it correlates negatively with poor control in glycemic and metabolic variables. T2D monocytes expressed lower levels of HLA-DR, CD86, PD-L1, and CD163, which correlated negatively with poor metabolic control. In MDM from T2D patients, HLA-DR, CD86 and CD163 expression was lower and it inversely correlated with deficient glycemic or metabolic control parameters. CONCLUSION: The glycemic/metabolic control associated with T2D influences monocyte and MDM phenotypes toward an immune-suppressive phenotype.

Macrophage: A Potential Target on Cartilage Regeneration.

Cartilage lesions and osteoarthritis (OA) presents an ever-increasing clinical and socioeconomic burden. Synovial inflammation and articular inflammatory environment are the key factor for chondrocytes apoptosis and hypertrophy, ectopic bone formation and OA progression. To effectively treat OA, it is critical to develop a drug that skews inflammation toward a pro-chondrogenic microenvironment. In this narrative and critical review, we aim to see the potential use of immune cells modulation or cell therapy as therapeutic alternatives to OA patients. Macrophages are immune cells that are present in synovial lining, with different roles depending on their subtypes. These cells can polarize to pro-inflammatory (M1) and anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotypes, being the latter associated with wound-healing by the production of ARG-1 and pro-chondrogenic cytokines, such as IL-10, IL-1RA, and TGF-b. Emerging evidence reveals that macrophage shift can be determined by several stimuli, apart from the conventional in vitro IL-4, IL-13, and IL-10. Evidences show the potential of physical exercise to induce type 2 response, favoring M2 polarization. Moreover, macrophages in contact with oxLDL have effect on the production of anabolic mediators as TGF-b. In the same direction, type II collagen, that plays a critical role in development and maturation process of chondrocytes, can also induce M2 macrophages, increasing TGF-b. The mTOR pathway activation in macrophages was shown to be able to polarize macrophages in vitro, though further studies are required. The possibility to use mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in cartilage restoration have a more concrete literature, besides, MSCs also have the capability to induce M2 macrophages. In the other direction, M1 polarized macrophages inhibit the proliferation and viability of MSCs and impair their ability to immunosuppress the environment, preventing cartilage repair. Therefore, even though MSCs therapeutic researches advances, other sources of M2 polarization are attractive issues, and further studies will contribute to the possibility to manipulate this polarization and to use it as a therapeutic approach in OA patients.

Avaliação da atividade imunomoduladora das pectinas in natura e modificadas obtidas de goiabas / Evaluation of immunomodulatory activity of non-modified and modified pectins from guava fruit

As pectinas presentes nas frutas, assim como sua versão modificada, estão entre as biomoléculas mais promissoras no campo da imunomodulação. Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o potencial imunomodulador de pectinas obtidas de goiabas verdes e maduras, bem como suas versões modificadas. As goiabas cv. Tailandesas foram avaliadas ao longo do amadurecimento, sendo acompanhadas as alterações da cor da polpa e casca, firmeza, produção de etileno e respiração, perda de massa e o teor de açúcares solúveis. Após a caracterização dos frutos, foram extraídas as pectinas e estas foram caracterizadas quanto ao conteúdo monossacarídico, peso molecular, presença de oligossacarídeos e grau de esterificação. As pectinas in natura de goiaba madura e verde, bem como a versão modificada desta última apresentaram frações de alto e baixo peso molecular, alta proporção de ácido galacturônico e alto teor de esterificação. Por outro lado, as pectinas modificadas derivadas de goiaba madura apresentaram maior desesterificação, com perda de frações de menor peso molecular, menor proporção de ácido galacturônico e baixo teor de esterificação. As pectinas foram incubadas com células THP-1 e RAW 264.7, e apesar da alta viabilidade celular e ausência de efeito citotóxico, resultou em expressiva produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio. De modo geral, as pectinas in natura de goiaba verde e madura, e pectina modificada de goiaba verde promoveram estímulo da produção de citocinas diversas, em especial inflamatórias, como IL-1ß, IL-12, CCL5, CXCL10 e CXCL9, para células THP-1 e IL-10 (antiinflamatória), TNF-α e MCP-1, demonstrando seu potencial imunomodulador, já para células RAW 264.7 as pectinas estimularam a produção de IL-10, TNF-α e MCP-1, demonstrando seu potencial imunomodulador. A pectina modificada derivada da goiaba madura não promoveu a indução significativa de nenhuma citocina. Estes resultados sugerem que as pectinas obtidas a partir de goiabas têm potencial imunomodulador e devem ser estudadas em outros modelos celulares e / ou em concentrações mais altas e modelos in vivo, para que esses benefícios possam realmente ser comprovados

The pectin present in fruits and their modified version are the most promising biomolecules in the immunomodulatory field. This study aimed to evaluate the immunomodulatory potential of pectins obtained from unripe and ripe guavas (Psidium guajava L.) cv. Thailandesa as well as their modified versions. The guavas were characterized during ripening regarding cell wall solubilization, sugar content, firmness, mass loss and ethylene production rate and respiration during 10th following harvest. After fruit characterization, pectins were extracted and characterized for monosaccharide content, molecular weight, presence of oligosaccharides and degree of esterification. Pectins from unripe and ripe guava as well as the modified versions of pectins had high and low molecular weight fractions, a high proportion of galacturonic acid and high esterification content. On the other hand, modified pectins derived from ripe guava showed higher de-esterification, with loss of lower molecular weight fractions, a lower proportion of galacturonic acid and low esterification content. The pectins were incubated with THP-1 and RAW 264.7 cells, and despite the high cell viability and absence of cytotoxic effect, the treatment resulted in the expressive production of reactive oxygen species. In general, pectins from ripe and unripe guava and modified pectin from unripe guava stimulated the production of diverse cytokines, especially inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1ß, IL 12, CCL5, CXCL10, and CXCL9, for THP-1, while IL-10 (anti-inflammatory), TNF-α and MCP-1 were stimulated in RAW 264.7 cells, demonstrating their immunomodulatory potential. Modified pectin derived from ripe guava did not promote any significant induction of the cytokines investigated. These results suggest that pectins obtained from guavas have immunomodulatory potential and deserve a more in-depth investigation using other cellular models and/or use of higher concentrations and in vivo models tests so their immunomodulatory benefits can be prove

Skeletal muscles induce recruitment of Ly6C+ macrophage subtypes and release inflammatory cytokines 3 days after downhill exercise.

Macrophages are one of the most versatile cells of the immune system that can express distinct subtypes and functions depending on the physiological challenge. After skeletal muscle damage, inflammatory macrophage subtypes aid muscles to regenerate and are implicated in physical training adaption. Based on this information, this study aimed to evaluate two classic mice macrophage subtypes and determine whether some inflammatory cytokines might be involved in the muscle adaption process after exercise. For this purpose, mice were exposed to an intermittent experimental protocol of downhill exercise (18 bouts of running, each bout 5 min with a 2-min rest interval, slope -16°) and were euthanized before [control (CTRL)] and 1, 2 (D2), and 3 (D3) days after exercise. After euthanasia, the triceps brachii was harvested and submitted to protein extraction, immunostaining, and mononuclear digestion procedures. The muscle size, macrophage accumulation, and cytokines were determined. We observed an increase in the Ly6C+ macrophage subtype (P ≤ 0.05) in D2 and D3 compared with CTRL, as well as a significant inverse correlation coefficient (-0.52; P ≤ 0.05) between Ly6C+ and Ly6C- macrophage subtypes. Moreover, we also observed elevation in several cytokines (IL-1ß, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-13) at D3, although not IL-4, which tended to decrease at this time point (P = 0.06). Downhill exercises preferentially recruited Ly6C+ macrophages with important proinflammatory cytokine elevation at D3. Moreover, despite the elevation of several cytokines involved with myogenesis, an increase in IL-6 and IL-13, which potentially involve muscle adaption training after acute exercise, was also observed.

Paracoccidioidomycosis: characterization of subpopulations of macrophages and cytokines in human mucosal lesions.

Mucosal lesions of paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM) are frequently described and clinically important. Macrophages are classified as M1 or M2. M1 are proinflammatory and M2 are related to chronicity. Dectin-1 recognizes ß-glucan and plays an important role against fungal cells. The objective was to verify the presence of M1, M2, and dectin-1 and a possible correlation with Th1/Th2 cytokines in mucosal PCM lesions. In sum, 33 biopsies of oral PCM were submitted to histological and immunohistochemistry analysis, and positive cells were quantified. Eleven biopsies were characterized by compact granulomas (G1), 12 with loose granulomas (G2), and 10 with both kind of granulomas (G3). pSTAT-1 was equally increased in the three groups. G1 was characterized by an increased number of CD163+ macrophages. G2 presented similar number of arginase 1, iNOS, and CD163 expressing cells. G3 presented an increased number of cells expressing arginase 1 and CD163 over iNOS. G1 and G3 presented high number of cells expressing interferon (IFN)-γ; interleukin (IL) 5 was increased in G2 and G3; the expression of IL10 was similar among the three groups, and the expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α was higher in G3. G1 correlates to Th1 cytokines and pSTAT-1 and G2 correlates to Th2 cytokines. G3 presents both kinds of cytokines. We could not associate the expression of arginase-1, CD163, iNOS, and dectin-1 with the pattern of cytokines or kind of granuloma.

Targeting the polarization of tumor-associated macrophages and modulating mir-155 expression might be a new approach to treat diffuse large B-cell lymphoma of the elderly.

Aging immune deterioration and Epstein-Barr (EBV) intrinsic mechanisms play an essential role in EBV-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) of the elderly (EBV + DLBCLe) pathogenesis, through the expression of viral proteins, interaction with host molecules and epigenetic regulation, such as miR-155, required for induction of M1 phenotype of macrophages. This study aims to evaluate the relationship between macrophage polarization pattern in the tumor microenvironment and relative expression of miR-155 in EBV + DLBCLe and EBV-negative DLBCL patients. We studied 28 EBV + DLBCLe and 65 EBV-negative DLBCL patients. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) were evaluated by expression of CD68, CD163 and CD163/CD68 ratio (degree of M2 polarization), using tissue microarray. RNA was extracted from paraffin-embedded tumor samples for miR-155 relative expression study. We found a significantly higher CD163/CD68 ratio in EBV + DLBCLe compared to EBV-negative DLBCL. In EBV-negative DLBCL, CD163/CD68 ratio was higher among advanced-staged/high-tumor burden disease and overexpression of miR-155 was associated with decreased polarization to the M2 phenotype of macrophages. The opposite was observed in EBV + DLBCLe patients: we found a positive association between miR-155 relative expression and CD163/CD68 ratio, which was not significant after outlier exclusion. We believe that the higher CD163/CD68 ratio in this group is probably due to the presence of the EBV since it directly affects macrophage polarization towards M2 phenotype through cytokine secretion in the tumor microenvironment. Therapeutic strategies modulating miR-155 expression or preventing immuno-regulatory and pro-tumor macrophage polarization could be adjuvants in EBV + DLBCLe therapy since this entity has a rich infiltration of M2 macrophages in its tumor microenvironment.

Efeitos dos aminoácidos de cadeia ramificada na resposta inflamatória induzida por lipopolissacarídeo em macrófagos de linhagem celular RAW 264. 7 / Effects of branched-chain amino acids in the inflammatory response induced by lipopolysaccharide in a macrophage cell line RAW 264. 7

Os aminoácidos de cadeia ramificada (ACR) são considerados indispensáveis, pois não podem ser sintetizados endogenamente, sendo facilmente obtidos pela dieta. Entretanto, em determinadas condições clínicas, tanto a ingestão quando a absorção desses aminoácidos pode estar comprometida, levando ao estado hipercatabólico e prejudicando a função imune. O papel imunomodulador dos ACR tem sido relacionado com a melhora no balanço nitrogenado e o aumento da síntese e proliferação de células imunes, bem como, da síntese de mediadores inflamatórios. Entretanto, o mecanismo pelo qual os ACR exercem essas funções supracitadas ainda não é claro na literatura científica. Desta forma, esse trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar os efeitos da suplementação com ACR sobre os parâmetros inflamatórios e moleculares em macrófagos RAW 264.7 estimulados com lipopolissacarídeo (LPS). As culturas celulares foram distribuídas em cinco grupos: CTL - sem suplementação com ACR; LEU - suplementado com leucina (2 mmol/L); ISO - suplementado com isoleucina (2mmol/L); VAL - suplementado com valina (2 mmol/L) e LIV - suplementado com leucina (2 mmol/L), isoleucina (2 mmol/L) e valina (2 mmol/L). O estado inflamatório foi induzido pela adição de LPS (1 µg/mL) ao meio de cultura, seguindo quatro protocolos de tratamento: PT - pré-tratamento; TA - tratamento agudo; TC - tratamento crônico e TT - tratamento tardio. O ensaio de viabilidade celular foi realizado pelo teste MTT e a dosagem de óxido nítrico (NO) pela reação de Griess. As citocinas pró e anti-inflamatórias, e a prostaglandina E2 (PGE2) foram analisadas pelo método de ELISA. Para a avaliação dos parâmetros moleculares foi utilizado o método de western blotting. Houve aumento da viabilidade celular em todos os grupos suplementados em relação ao grupo controle no TA, no TC e no TT. Acerca da síntese de NO, a suplementação com ACR foi capaz de aumentar esse parâmetro em três dos quatro tratamentos propostos (PT, TA e TC). Em relação à síntese de citocinas pró e anti-inflamatórias, o PT e o TC foram mais eficazes em aumentar esse parâmetro em comparação aos outros tratamentos. Não houve diferença entre os grupos em relação à capacidade de síntese de PGE2 e à fosforilação de proteínas intracelulares. A partir dos resultados obtidos é possível concluir que os ACR contribuem significativamente para a viabilidade celular, bem como para a síntese de mediadores pró e anti-inflamatórios, sendo que o protocolo de suplementação se apresenta como fator determinante para obtenção desses resultados. Apesar da literatura científica atribuir grande parte dos efeitos imunomodulatórios à leucina, os resultados obtidos nesse estudo atribuem relevante potencial imunomodulador à isoleucina, abrindo espaço para um importante tema de estudo

Branched chain amino acids (BCAA) are considered indispensable, since they cannot be endogenously synthesized, being easily obtained by diet. However, in certain clinical conditions, both the intake and absorption of these amino acids may be compromised, leading to the hypercatabolic state and impairing the immune function. The immunomodulatory role of BCAA has been associated with the nitrogen balance improvement and the increase of production and proliferation of immune cells, as well as the synthesis of inflammatory mediators. However, the mechanisms by which BCAA modulate the immune system have not yet been completely elucidated. In this sense, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of BCAA supplementation on intracellular mechanisms and inflammatory parameters in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Cell cultures were distributed into five groups: CTL - without ACR supplementation; LEU - supplemented with leucine (2 mmol/L); ISO - supplemented with isoleucine (2mmol / L); VAL - supplemented with valine (2 mmol/L) and LIV - supplemented with leucine (2 mmol/L), isoleucine (2 mmol/L) and valine (2 mmol/L). The inflammatory state was induced by the addition of LPS (1 µg/ml) to the culture medium, following four treatment protocols: PT - pre-treatment; TA - acute treatment; TC - chronic treatment and TT - late treatment. The cell viability assay was performed by the MTT test and the nitric oxide (NO) dosage by the Griess reaction. Pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) were analyzed by ELISA. For the evaluation of the molecular parameters, the western blotting method was used. There was an increase in cell viability in all supplemented groups in relation to the control group in the TA, TC and TT treatments. Regarding NO synthesis, BCAA supplementation was able to increase NO production in three of the four proposed treatments (PT, TA and TC). In relation to the production of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, PT and CT were more effective in increasing this parameter, compared to the other treatments. There was no difference between groups in relation to PGE2 production and intracellular protein phosphorylation. From the obtained results it is possible to conclude that the BCAA significantly contributed to the cell viability, as well as, for the production of pro and anti-inflammatory mediators, and the supplementation protocol presents as determinant factor to obtain these results. Although the scientific literature attributed a large part of the immunomodulatory effects to leucine, the results obtained in this study attribute relevant immunomodulatory potential to isoleucine, opening space for an important study topic

Tumour-associated macrophages: Relation with progression and invasiveness, and assessment of M1/M2 macrophages in canine mammary tumours.

Macrophages represent a major component of the overall leucocyte population within neoplasms and are important for tumour behaviour in several cancers in human beings. However, little information regarding their role in canine mammary tumours (CMTs) is available. The aim of this study was to address the potential role of tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) in CMTs. TAMs in CMTs excised from 82 female dogs were quantified at high power (400× magnification) and categorised as low (≤50) or high (>50) TAM counts. Higher TAM counts were associated with clinical stage (P<0.001), tumour type (P=0.016), tumour size (P=0.013), vascular invasion (P=0.031), lymph node metastasis (P=0.003), high proliferation rates (P=0.009), vascular microdensity (P=0.008), invasive tumour profile (P=0.002) and worse prognosis (P=0.018; hazard ratio=0.283). Almost all macrophages infiltrating malignant tumours with high TAM counts expressed CD206 (macrophage mannose receptor 1), while all benign tumours were infiltrated by macrophages expressing inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2), suggesting a phenotypic shift from classically activated macrophage (M1) subpopulations towards alternatively activated macrophage (M2) subpopulations in malignant tumours. A triple staining pattern revealed mixed M1/M2 profiles in some tumours, thus characterising an intermediate state. The results indicate that TAMs are associated with more aggressive types of mammary cancer in dogs.

Human macrophages chronically exposed to LPS can be reactivated by stimulation with MDP to acquire an antimicrobial phenotype.

Macrophages are important in host defense and can differentiate into functionally distinct subsets named classically (M1) or alternatively (M2) activated. In several inflammatory disorders, macrophages become tolerized to prevent deleterious consequences. This tolerization reduces the ability of macrophages to respond to bacterial components (e.g., LPS) maintaining a low level of inflammation but compromising the ability of macrophages to mount an effective immune response during subsequent pathogen encounters. In this study, we aimed to reactivate human monocyte-derived macrophages chronically exposed to LPS by re-stimulation with muramyl dipeptide (MDP). We observed an undefined profile of cell surface marker expression during endotoxin tolerance and absence of TNFα production. Stimulating macrophages chronically exposed to LPS with LPS+MDP restored TNFα, production together with an increased production of IL1, IL6, IFNγ, IL4, IL5 and IL10. These results suggest that macrophages chronically exposed to LPS possess a mixed M1-M2 phenotype with sufficient antimicrobial and homeostatic potential.

Monocyte Differentiation towards Protumor Activity Does Not Correlate with M1 or M2 Phenotypes.

Macrophages facilitate breast cancer progression. Macrophages were initially classified as M1 or M2 based on their distinct metabolic programs and then expanded to include antitumoral (M1) and protumoral (M2) activities. However, it is still uncertain what markers define the pro- and antitumoral phenotypes and what conditions lead to their formation. In this study, monocytic cell lines and primary monocytes were subjected to commonly reported protocols of M1/M2 polarization and conditions known to engage monocytes into protumoral functions. The results showed that only IDO enzyme and CD86 M1 markers were upregulated correlating with M1 polarization. TNF-α, CCR7, IL-10, arginase I, CD36, and CD163 were expressed indistinguishably from M1 or M2 polarization. Similarly, protumoral engaging resulted in upregulation of both M1 and M2 markers, with conditioned media from the most aggressive breast cancer cell line promoting the greatest changes. In spite of the mixed phenotype, M1-polarized macrophages exhibited the highest expression/secretion of inflammatory mediators, many of which have previously been associated with breast cancer aggressiveness. These data argue that although the existence of protumoral macrophages is unquestionable, their associated phenotypes and the precise conditions driving their formation are still unclear, and those conditions may need both M1 and M2 stimuli.

HMGB1 enhances the protumoral activities of M2 macrophages by a RAGE-dependent mechanism.

The monocyte-macrophage lineage shows a high degree of diversity and plasticity. Once they infiltrate tissues, they may acquire two main functional phenotypes, being known as the classically activated type 1 macrophages (M1) and the alternative activated type 2 macrophages (M2). The M1 phenotype can be induced by bacterial products and interferon-γ and exerts a cytotoxic effect on cancer cells. Conversely, the alternatively activated M2 phenotype is induced by Il-4/IL13 and promotes tumor cell growth and vascularization. Although receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE) engagement in M1 macrophages has been reported by several groups to promote inflammation, nothing is known about the functionality of RAGE in M2 macrophages. In the current study, we demonstrate that RAGE is equally expressed in both macrophage phenotypes and that RAGE activation by high-mobility group protein box1 (HMGB1) promotes protumoral activities of M2 macrophages. MKN45 cells co-cultured with M2 macrophages treated with HMGB1 at different times displayed higher invasive abilities. Additionally, conditioned medium from HMGB1-treated M2 macrophages promotes angiogenesis in vitro. RAGE-targeting knockdown abrogates these activities. Overall, the present findings suggest that HMGB1 may contribute, by a RAGE-dependent mechanism, to the protumoral activities of the M2 phenotype.

Vascular calcification in atherosclerosis: potential roles of macrophages and non-coding micro-RNAs / Calcificación vascular en aterosclerosis: posibles funciones de macrófagos y micro-ARNs no codificantes

Coronary heart disease, a leading cause of death in western societies, is caused by the presence of atherosclerotic plaques in the coronary arteries. Calcification is a frequent complication of atherosclerotic plaques, and often a contributing factor to their instability and rupture. Endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells and plaque macrophages, all contribute to the calcification process, which is reminiscent of that underlying bone formation. In particular, the role of macrophages in calcification has long been recognized, but whether or not distinct macrophage subsets ­v.g., M1 or inflammatory, and M2 or antinflammatory have specific functions in osteogenic signaling within the context of plaque calcification remains poorly understood. Over the past few years, accumulated evidence has revealed novel roles of non-coding micro-RNAs (miRs) in atherorelevant functions of macrophages and in mechanisms linked to macrophage divergence into different subtypes. In this article we discuss some salient findings on potential roles of miRs in vascular calcification, with focus on those miRs that have also been associated to macrophage differentiation, and speculate on their potential relation to M1 and M2 macrophages in the context of calcification of atherosclerotic plaques. (AU)

La enfermedad cardíaca coronaria, principal causa de muerte en occidente, es causada por la presencia de placas ateroscleróticas en las arterias coronarias. La presencia de depósitos de calcificación es una complicación frecuente de la placa, y puede contribuir a la inestabilidad y ruptura de la misma. El proceso de calcificación de la placa es similar al que ocurre en hueso, y contribuyen al mismo, mecanismos dependientes de células endoteliales, células musculares lisas y macrófagos, células que están presentes en todas las etapas de desarrollo de la placa aterosclerótica. El rol de los macrófagos en la calcificación de la placa se conoce desde hace tiempo, pero la contribución de los distintos tipos de macrófagos ­por ejemplo, M1 o tipo inflamatorio, y M2 o tipo antiinflamatorio a mecanismos de señalización osteogénica en dicho contexto aún no se conoce. Recientemente varios trabajos experimentales han revelado la existencia de nuevos roles de micro-ARNs no codificantes (miRs) en varias funciones de los macrófagos que son de relevancia en el proceso aterogénico, como así también en mecanismos relacionados a la diferenciación de macrófagos en subtipos específicos. En este artículo discutimos algunos de los hallazgos más importantes sobre posibles nuevos roles de miRs en calcificación vascular, poniendo énfasis en aquellos miRs que han sido también asociados a la diferenciación de macrófagos, y especulamos acerca de su posible relación con macrófagos M1 y M2 en el contexto de la calcificación de la placa aterosclerótica. (AU)

Pattern of cytokine and chemokine production by THP-1 derived macrophages in response to live or heat-killed Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin Moreau strain.

Tuberculosis has great public health impact with high rates of mortality and the only prophylactic measure for it is the Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine. The present study evaluated the release of cytokines [interleukin (IL)-1, tumour necrosis factor and IL-6] and chemokines [macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α and MIP-1ß] by THP-1 derived macrophages infected with BCG vaccine obtained by growing mycobacteria in Viscondessa de Moraes Institute medium medium (oral) or Sauton medium (intradermic) to compare the effects of live and heat-killed (HK) mycobacteria. Because BCG has been reported to lose viability during the lyophilisation process and during storage, we examined whether exposing BCG to different temperatures also triggers differences in the expression of some important cytokines and chemokines of the immune response. Interestingly, we observed that HK mycobacteria stimulated cytokine and chemokine production in a different pattern from that observed with live mycobacteria.

Pattern of cytokine and chemokine production by THP-1 derived macrophages in response to live or heat-killed Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin Moreau strain

Tuberculosis has great public health impact with high rates of mortality and the only prophylactic measure for it is the Mycobacterium bovisbacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine. The present study evaluated the release of cytokines [interleukin (IL)-1, tumour necrosis factor and IL-6] and chemokines [macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α and MIP-1β] by THP-1 derived macrophages infected with BCG vaccine obtained by growing mycobacteria in Viscondessa de Moraes Institute medium medium (oral) or Sauton medium (intradermic) to compare the effects of live and heat-killed (HK) mycobacteria. Because BCG has been reported to lose viability during the lyophilisation process and during storage, we examined whether exposing BCG to different temperatures also triggers differences in the expression of some important cytokines and chemokines of the immune response. Interestingly, we observed that HK mycobacteria stimulated cytokine and chemokine production in a different pattern from that observed with live mycobacteria.

Integrated Transcriptomics Establish Macrophage Polarization Signatures and have Potential Applications for Clinical Health and Disease.

Growing evidence defines macrophages (Mφ) as plastic cells with wide-ranging states of activation and expression of different markers that are time and location dependent. Distinct from the simple M1/M2 dichotomy initially proposed, extensive diversity of macrophage phenotypes have been extensively demonstrated as characteristic features of monocyte-macrophage differentiation, highlighting the difficulty of defining complex profiles by a limited number of genes. Since the description of macrophage activation is currently contentious and confusing, the generation of a simple and reliable framework to categorize major Mφ phenotypes in the context of complex clinical conditions would be extremely relevant to unravel different roles played by these cells in pathophysiological scenarios. In the current study, we integrated transcriptome data using bioinformatics tools to generate two macrophage molecular signatures. We validated our signatures in in vitro experiments and in clinical samples. More importantly, we were able to attribute prognostic and predictive values to components of our signatures. Our study provides a framework to guide the interrogation of macrophage phenotypes in the context of health and disease. The approach described here could be used to propose new biomarkers for diagnosis in diverse clinical settings including dengue infections, asthma and sepsis resolution.

Treatment in vitro with PPARα and PPARγ ligands drives M1-to-M2 polarization of macrophages from T. cruzi-infected mice.

Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas' disease, induces a persistent inflammatory response. Macrophages are a first line cell phenotype involved in the clearance of infection. Upon parasite uptake, these cells increase inflammatory mediators like NO, TNF-α, IL-1ß and IL-6, leading to parasite killing. Although desired, inflammatory response perpetuation and exacerbation may lead to tissue damage. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are ligand-dependent nuclear transcription factors that, besides regulating lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, have a significant anti-inflammatory effect. This is mediated through the interaction of the receptors with their ligands. PPARγ, one of the PPAR isoforms, has been implicated in macrophage polarization from M1, the classically activated phenotype, to M2, the alternatively activated phenotype, in different models of metabolic disorders and infection. In this study, we show for the first time that, besides PPARγ, PPARα is also involved in the in vitro polarization of macrophages isolated from T. cruzi-infected mice. Polarization was evidenced by a decrease in the expression of NOS2 and proinflammatory cytokines and the increase in M2 markers like Arginase I, Ym1, mannose receptor and TGF-ß. Besides, macrophage phagocytic activity was significantly enhanced, leading to increased parasite load. We suggest that modulation of the inflammatory response by both PPARs might be due, at least in part, to a change in the profile of inflammatory macrophages. The potential use of PPAR agonists as modulators of overt inflammatory response during the course of Chagas' disease deserves further investigation.

Atividade antimicrobiana de diferentes fármacos contra Mycobacterium abscessus organizada em biofilmes ou localizada em fagossomos / Antimicrobial activity of different drugs against Mycobacterium abscessus in biofilms organized or located in phagosomes

A Mycobacterium abscessus subspécie abscessus é um pesadelo quando envolvida em infecção pulmonar que são incuráveis, a despeito do uso de antimicrobianos com atividade in vitro, caso o tratamento não inclua a ressecção cirúrgica da área afetada. É a micobactéria patogência de crescimento rápido mais frequentemente isolada de culturas de sítios pulmonares. Há um número reduzido de opções terapêuticas para o tratamento dessas infecções, e é ainda mais reduzido o número de antimicrobianos que atingem concentrações terapêuticas no compartimento intracelular, em particular no fagossomo. O número limitado de antimicrobianos disponíveis para tratamento apontam a necessidade de determinação do perfil de susceptibilidade frente a antimicrobianos isolados e em combinação, nos compartimentos intra e extracelular. Os objetivos deste estudo foram avaliar: a sensibilidade de M. abscessus estruturadas em biofilmes e presentes no interior dos macrófagos; a ocorrência de sinergismo quando da associação entre fármacos, inibidores de betalactamase e o anti-inflamatório. As combinações entre os antimicrobianos foram apenas indiferente quanto ao FIC e a atividade dos fármacos em biofilme e em macrófagos é bacteriostático

Mycobacterium abscessus subspecies abscessus is a nightmare when involved in lung infection that is incurable, despite the use of antibiotics with in vitro activity, if the treatment does not include surgical resection of the affected area. It is a MCR - rapidly growing mycobacteria pathogenic most frequently isolated from cultures of lung sites. There are a small number of therapeutic options for the treatment of such infections is further reduced and the number of drugs that reach therapeutic concentrations in the intracellular compartment, particularly in the phagosome. The limited number of antimicrobials available for treatment indicate the need for determining the susceptibility profile against antimicrobials alone and in combination, in the intra and extracellular compartments. The objectives of this study were sensitivity of MCR structured biofilms and present in macrophages, the occurrence of synergism when the association between drugs, beta-lactamase inhibitors and anti-inflammatory. Combinations of antimicrobials were just indifferent and the activity of drugs on biofilms and macrophages was bacteriostatic